Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T04:28:09.158Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

19 - Effects of Environmental Enrichment and Training across Life Span in Cognition

from Part II - Psychosocial Factors

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2019

By
María Dolores Calero
Edited by
Rocío Fernández-Ballesteros ,
Athanase Benetos  and
Jean-Marie Robine
Rocío Fernández-Ballesteros
Affiliation:
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid
Athanase Benetos
Affiliation:
Université de Lorraine and Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale (INSERM) Nancy
Jean-Marie Robine
Affiliation:
INSERM
Get access

Summary

In the last 40 years there has been a significant change in the vision of aging: it is now understood and accepted that the elderly are the managers of their own physical and mental health, although some require the help of social and health agents to maintain their autonomy. The environment, fundamentally the social environment, is considered an important variable in the promotion of active aging, since it influences the cognitive maintenance of the elderly in very different ways. This chapter reviews the influence of environmental enrichment defined as those physical, sensory, affective and / or cognitive experiences that develop throughout life and contribute to optimize the physical, cognitive and / or emotional repertoires of a person, in the aging. It is revised the theoretical and methodological bases (lifespan theory, theory of disuse and cognitive plasticity construct) that support this line of research and the results of research carried out on lifelong environmental enrichment and environmental enrichment in old age. Regarding the first line: LIFELONG ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT. Epidemiological and longitudinal studies seem to show that maintaining an active lifestyle in old age - physical, mental and social - can protect against cognitive impairment. The educational level has an important role in protecting against age-related cognitive impairment, not only as a direct effect, but also because it can encourage greater cognitive activity in different areas of life. The effects of education are reinforced by all kinds of activities, including cultural and physical activities, which seem to play an important part in the cognitive maintenance of older people. Regarding the second line: ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT IN OLD AGE. The chapter reviews cognitive plasticity research and studies on cognitive training in old age, which generally show that the effects of cognitive training can improve the performance of the elderly in the trained areas with moderate effects, and that are detected by psychological tests or measures of objective skills, although they present some limitations that must be reviewed. Finally it is proposed a scheme that considers all the variables that can intervene in the transfer of training that could be considered to evaluate the effects of an intervention. This is posed to solve the need to verify the individual effect of each one to reach the proposed objective and, following a scheme of interventions based on the evidence, to design a formation that foments the environmental enrichment and is adjusted to the objective pursued and the characteristics of the elderly.
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Successful Aging , pp. 321 - 354
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abutalebi, J., Guidi, L., Borsa, V., et al. (2015). A bilingualism provides a neural reserve for aging populations. Neuropsychologia, 69, 201–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alley, D., Suthers, K., Crimmins, E. (2007). Education and cognitive decline in older Americans: Results from de AHEAD simple. Research Aging, 29, 73–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andel, R., Vigen, C., Mack, W. J., et al. (2006). The effect of educational and occupational complexity on rate of cognitive decline in Alzheimer patients. Journal International Neuropsychological Society, 12, 147–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bäckman, L. (1992). Memory training and memory improvement in Alzheimer disease: rules and exceptions. Acta Neurologica Scandinavia, 139, 84–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Bäckman, L. (1996). Utilizing compensatory task conditions for episodic memory in Alzheimer´s disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavia, 165, 109–13.Google Scholar
Bailey, H., Dunlosky, J., Hertzog, Ch. (2010). Metacognitive training at home: does it improve older adults’ learning?. Gerontology, 56, 414–20. DOI: 10.1159/000266030.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Back, T. H. (2016). The impact of bilingualism on cognitive ageing and dementia. Finding a path through a forest of confounding variables. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(1/2), 205–26. DOI: 10.1075/lab.15002.bak.Google Scholar
Baker, L. D., Frank, L. L., Foster-Schubert, K., et al. (2010). Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: A controlled trial. Archives of Neurology, 67(1), 71–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ball, K., Berch, D. B., Helmer, K. F., et al. (2002). Effects of cognitive training interventions with older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 2271–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theoretical propositions of life-span developmental psychology: On the dynamics between growth and decline. Developmental Psychology, 23, 611–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Willis, S. L. (1982). Plasticity and enhancement of intellectual functioning in old age: Penn State's Adult Development and Enrichment Project (ADEPT). In Craik, F. I. M. & Trehub, S. E. (Eds.), Aging and cognitive processes (pp. 353–89). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Baltes, M. M., Raykov, T. (1996). Prospective validity of cognitive plasticity in the diagnosis of mental status: a structural equation model. Neuropsychology, 10, 549–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P., Ulrich-Meyer, K. (1999). The Berlin Aging Study: Aging from 70 to 100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Smith, J. (2003). New frontiers in the future of aging: from successful aging of the young-old to the dilemmas of the fourth age. Gerontology, 49, 123–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, M. M., Kuhl, K. P., Sowarka, D. (1992). Testing for limits of cognitive reserve capacity: A promising strategy for early diagnosis of dementia?. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47, P165–P167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baltes, M. M., Kuhl, K. P., Sowarka, D., et al. (1995). Potential of cognitive plasticity as a diagnostic instrument: Across validation and extension. Psychology and Aging, 10, 167–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Reuter-Lorenz, P., Rösler, F. (Eds.). (2006). Lifespan development and the brain: The perspective of biocultural co-constructivism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, L. L., Mendes de Leon, C. F., Wilson, R. S., et al. (2004). Social resources and cognitive decline in a population of older African Americans and Whites. Neurology, 63, 2322–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baroncelli, L., Braschi, C., Spolidoro, M., et al. (2010). Nurturing brain plasticity: impact of environmental enrichment. Cell Death and Differentiation, 17, 1092–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bastian, C. C. von, Langer, N., Jäncke, L., et al. (2013). Effects of working memory training in young and old adults. Memory & Cognition, 41(4), 611–24. Doi: 10.3758/s13421-012-0280-7.Google Scholar
Bastian, C. C. von, Oberauer, K. (2014). Effects and mechanisms of working memory training: A review. Psychological Research, 78(6), 803–20. Doi: 10.1007/s00426-013-0524-6.Google Scholar
Belleville, S. (2008). Cognitive training for persons with mild cognitive impairment. International Psychogeriatrics, 20(1), 57–66. Doi: 10.1017/S104161020700631X.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bherer, L., Kramer, A. F., Peterson, M. S., et al. (2006). Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: Application to attentional control. Acta Psychologica, 123, 261–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystoka, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T. H., et al. (2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews, 27, 56–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blaskewicz, J., Willis, S. L., Schaie, K. W. (2007). Cognitive training gains as a predictor of mental status. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 62B, 45–52.Google Scholar
Boosman, H. Thamar, J. H., Eerdt, B., et al. (2014). Dynamic testing of learning potential in adults with Cognitive impairments: A systematic review of methodology and predictive value. Journal of Neuropsychology, 11, 1–25. DOI: 10.1111/jnp.12063.Google Scholar
Borella, E., Carretti, B., Riboldi, F., et al. (2010). Working memory training in older adults, evidence of transfer and maintenance effects. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 767–78. doi: 10.1037/a0020683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosma, H., van Boxtel, M. P., Ponds, R. W., et al. (2002). Engaged lifestyle and cognitive function in middle and old-aged, non-demented persons: A reciprocal association? Zeitschrift für Gerontologie und Geriatrie, 35, 575–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bottiroli, S., Cavallini, E., Dunlosky, J., et al. (2013). The importance of training strategy adaptation: a learner-oriented approach for improving older adults’ memory and transfer. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 19(3), 205–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Brehmer, Y., Rieckmann, A., Bellander, M., et al. (2011). Neural correlates of training-related working-memory gains in old age. NeuroImage, 58(4), 1110–20. Doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.079.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, Article 63. Doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brehmer, Y., Kalpouzos, G., Wenger, E., et al. (2014). Plasticity of brain and cognition in older adults. Psychological Research, 78, 790–802. Doi 10.1007/s00426-014-0587-z.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britton, A., Shipley, M., Singh-Manoux, A., et al. (2008). Successful aging: the contribution of early-life and midlife risk factors. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 56, 1098–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, J., Cooper-Kuhn, C. M., Kemperman, G., et al. (2003). Enriched environment and physical activity stimulate hippocampal but not olfactory bulb neurogenesis. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 2042–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, B. M., Peiffer, J. J., Martins, R. N. (2013). Multiple effects of physical activity on molecular and cognitive signs of brain aging: can exercise slow neurodegeneration and delay Alzheimer's disease?. Mol Psychiatry, 18, 864–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bürki, C. N., Ludwig, C., Chicherio, C., et al. (2014). Individual differences in cognitive plasticity: An investigation of training curves in younger and older adults. Psychological Research, 78(6), 821–35. Doi: 10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cacioppo, J. T. (2002). Social neuroscience: Understanding the pieces fosters understanding the whole and vice versa. American Psychologist, 57, 819–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calero, M. D. (2000). Psicología de la vejez: funcionamiento cognitivo. In Fernández-Ballesteros, R. (Ed.), Gerontología social (pp. 201–27). Madrid: Pirámide.Google Scholar
Calero, M. D. (2004). La validez de las técnicas de evaluación del potencial de aprendizaje. Psicothema, 216(2), 217–21.Google Scholar
Calero, M. D., Garcia-Berben, T. M. (1997). A self-training program in inductive reasoning for low-education elderly: tutor-guided training vs. self-training. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, (24), 249–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calero, M. D., Navarro, E. (2006). La plasticidad cognitiva en la vejez. Barcelona: Editorial Octaedro.Google Scholar
Calero, M. D., Navarro, E. (2004). Relationship between plasticity, mild cognitive impairment and cognitive decline. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 653–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calero, M. D., Navarro, E. (2007a). Cognitive plasticity as a modulating variable on the effects of memory training in elderly persons. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22, 63–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calero, M. D., Navarro, E. (2007b). Effectiveness of a memory training programme in the maintenance of status in elderly people with and without cognitive decline. Psychology in Spain, 11, 106–12.Google Scholar
Calero, M. D., Navarro, E., Muñoz, L. (2007). Influence of activity on cognitive performance and cognitive plasticity in elderly persons. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 45(3), 307–18.Google Scholar
Campione, J. C., Brown, A. L., Ferrara, R. A., et al. (1985). Breakdowns in flexible use of information: Intelligence-related differences in transfer following equivalent learning performance. Intelligence, 9(4), 297–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cândea, D. M., Cotet, C. D., Stefan, S., et al. (2016). Computerized cognitive training for working memory in older adults: A review. Erdelyi Pszichologiai Szemle = Transylvanian Journal of Psychology, 16(2), 141–61.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: a critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavallini, E., Dunlosky, J., Bottiroli, S., et al. (2010). Promoting transfer in memory training for older adults. Aging Clinical Experimental Research, 22(4), 314–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colcombe, S., Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14, 125–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P., et al. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans: Evidence from a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 61B, 1166–70.Google Scholar
Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., Bäckman, L., et al. (2008a). Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 720–30. Doi: 10.1037/a0014296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahlin, E., Stigsdotter Neely, A. S., Larsson, A., et al. (2008b). Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science, 320(5882), 1510–12. Doi: 10.1126/science.1155466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dartigues, J., Gagnon, M., Michel, P. (1991). Le programme de recherche pâquis sur l’épidémiologie de la demence méthodes et résultats initiaux. Revista de Neurología, 147, 225–30.Google Scholar
Deary, I. J., Corley, J., Gow, A. J., et al. (2009). Age-associated cognitive decline. British Medical Bulletin, 92(1), 135–52. Doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldp033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denney, N. W. (1982). Aging and cognitive changes. In Wolman, B. B. (Ed.), Handbook of Developmental Psychology (pp. 807–28). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Derwinger, A., Stigsdotter, A., Bäckman, L. (2005). Design your own memory strategies! Self-generated strategy training versus mnemonic training in old age: An 8-month follow-up. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 15(1), 37–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desjardins-Crépeau, L., Berryman, N., Vu, T. T., et al. (2014). Physical functioning is associated with processing speed and executive functions in community-dwelling older adults. Journal Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 69, 837–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, K. I., Colcombe, S. J., Wadhwa, R., et al. (2007). Training-induced plasticity in older adults: Effects of training on hemispheric asymmetry. Neurobiology of Aging, 28, 272–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, K. I., Leckie, R. L., Weinstein, A. M. (2014). Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume. Neurobiological Aging, 35, 20–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fabrigoule, C., Letenneur, L., Dartigues, J. F., et al. (1995). Social and leisure activities and risk of dementia: A prospective longitudinal study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43, 485–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Calero, M. D. (1995). Training effects on the intelligence of older persons. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 20, 135–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Zamarrón, M., Tárraga, L., et al. (2003). Cognitive plasticity in healthy, mild cognitive impairment subjects and Alzheimer´s disease patients: a research project in Spain. European Psychologist, 8, 148–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Zamarrón, M., Tárraga, L. (2005). Learning potential: a new method for assessing cognitive impairment. International Psychogeriatrics, 17, 119–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Zamarrón, M. D., Calero, M. D. et al. (2007). Cognitive plasticity and cognitive impairment. In Fernández-Ballesteros, R. (Ed.), GeroPsychology. European Perspectives for an Ageing World (pp. 145–64). Göttingen: Hogrefe and Huber.Google Scholar
Fernández-Ballesteros, R., Molina, M. A., Schettini, R., et al. (2012). Promoting active aging through university programs for older adults: an evaluation study. GeroPsych, 25(3), 321–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernández-Ballesteros, R. Caprara, M., Schettini, R. et al., (2013). Effects of university programs for older adults: changes in cultural and group stereotype, self-perception of aging, and emotional balance. Educational Gerontology, 39, 119–31. Doi: 10.1080/03601277.2012.699817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Field, J. (2006). Lifelong learning and the new educational order. London: Trentham Books.Google Scholar
Floyd, M., Scogin, F. (1997). Effects of memory training on the subjective memory functioning and mental health of older adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 12, 150–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fratiglioni, L., Grut, M., Forsell, Y. (1991). Prevalence of Alzheimer disease and other dementias in an elderly urban population: relationship with age, sex, and education. Neurology, 41, 1886–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fratiglioni, L., Wang, H., Ericsson, K., et al. (2000). Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study. The Lancet, 335, 1315–19.Google Scholar
Fratiglioni, L., Paillard-Borg, S., Winblad, B. (2004). An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. The Lancet Neurology, 3(6), 343–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuller-Thomson, E., Kuh, D. (2014). The healthy migrant effect may confound the link between bilingualism and delayed onset of Alzheimer's disease. Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior, 52, 128. Doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2013.08.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gabryelewicz, T., Styczynska, M., Luczywek, E., et al. (2007). The rate of conversion of mild cognitive impairment to dementia: Predictive role of depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychosomatic, 22, 563–7.Google Scholar
Gajewski, P. D., Falkenstein, M. (2016). Physical activity and neurocognitive functioning in aging – a condensed updated review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 13(1). Doi: 10.1186/s11556-016-0161-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geda, Y. E., Roberts, R. O., Knopman, D. S., et al. (2010). Physical exercise, aging, and mild cognitive impairment: A population-based study. Archives of Neurology, 67(1), 80–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, B. T. (2015). Lifelong bilingualism and neural reserve against Alzheimer's disease: A review of findings and potential mechanisms. Behavioural Brain Research, 281, 9–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gow, A. J., Corley, J., Starr, J. M., et al. (2013). Which social network or support factors are associated with cognitive abilities in old age?. Gerontology, 59, 454–63. Doi: 10.1159/000351265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goyder, J., Orrell, M., Wenborn, J., et al. (2012). Staff training using STAR: a pilot study in UK care homes. International Psychogeriatrics, 24(06) 911–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C. S., Bavelier, D. (2008). Exercising your brain: A review of human brain plasticity and training-induced learning. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 692–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, P. M., Parasuraman, R. (2010). Neuronal and cognitive plasticity: a neurocognitive framework for ameliorating cognitive aging. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 10(2), 1–14.Google Scholar
Gross, A. L., Parisi, J. M., Spira, A. P., et al. (2012). Memory training interventions for older adults: A meta-analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 16(6), 722–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guye, S., Röcke, C., Mérillat, S., et al. (2016) Adult Lifespan. In Strobach, T. & Karbach, J. (Eds.), Cognitive Training: An Overview of Features and Applications (pp. 134–56). Berlin/New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Hayes, S. M., Hayes, J. P., Cadden, M., et al. (2013). Review of cardiorespiratory fitness-related neuroplasticity in the aging brain. Frontier in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 31–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Henry, L. A., Messer, D. J., Nash, G. (2014). Testing for near and far transfer effects with a short, face-to-face adaptive working memory training intervention in typical children. Infant and Child Development, 23, 84–103. Doi: 10.1002/icd.1816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hering, A., Rendell, P., Rose, N., et al. (2014). Prospective memory training in older adults and its relevance for successful aging. Psychological Research, 7(2), 25–46.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., et al. (2009). Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development. can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced?. Psychological Science, 9(1), 1–64.Google Scholar
Hertzog, C., Prince, J., Dunlosky, J. (2012). Age differences in the effects of experimenter-instructed versus self-generated strategy use. Experimental Aging Research, 38, 42–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heun, R., Burkart, M., Benkert, O. (1997). Improvement of picture recall by repetition in patients with dementia of Alzheimer type. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 12, 85–92.3.0.CO;2-U>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hindin, S. B., Zelinski, E. M. (2012). Extended practice and aerobic exercise interventions benefit untrained cognitive outcomes in older adults: a meta-analysis. Journal American Geriatric Society, 60, 136–41. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03761.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, J., Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L. (2009). Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Developmental Science, 12(4), F9–F15. Doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L., Cattell, R. B. (1966). Refinement and test of the theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 57, 253–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hultsch, D. F., Small, B. J., Hertzog, C., et al. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging. Psychology and Aging, 14, 245–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessberger, S., Gage, F. H. (2008). Structural and functional plasticity of the aging hippocampus. Psychology & Aging, 23, 684–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, S., Nyber, L., Sandblom, J., et al. (2006). Cognitive and neural plasticity in aging: General and task-specific limitation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Research, 30, 864–72.Google Scholar
Karbach, J., Kray, J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of tasks witching training. Developmental Science, 12(6), 978–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karbach, J., Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work: a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25(11), 2027–37. Doi: 10.1177/0956797614548725.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karen, E., Shannon, J. (2008). Family caregivers of older adults: a life span perspective. Family Relations; 57(1), 100–11.Google Scholar
Katz, B., Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., et al. (2014). Differential effect of motivational features on training improvements in school-based cognitive training. Frontier Human Neuroscience, 24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00242.Google Scholar
Katzman, R., Aronson, M., Fuld, P., et al. (1989). Development of dementing illnesses in an 80-year-old volunteer cohort. Annals of Neurology, 25, 317–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, M. E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B. A., et al. (2014). The impact of exercise on the cognitive functioning of healthy older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Review, 16, 12–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, A., Merriam, S. (2004). Motivations for learning among older adults in a learning-in-retirement institute. Educational Gerontology, 30, 441–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Korczyn, A. D., Kahana, E., Galper, Y. (1991). Epidemiology of dementia in Ashkelon, Israel. Neuroepidemiology, 10(1), 00.Google Scholar
Kueider, A. M., Parisi, J. M., Gross, A. L., et al. (2012). Computerized cognitive training with older adults: a systematic review. PLoS ONE, 7(7), e40588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kühn, S., Linderberger, U. (2016). Research on human plasticity in adulthood: a lifespan agenda. In Schaie, K. W. & Willis, S. L. (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Eighth edition, pp. 105–23). London: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Lachman, M. E., Agrigoroaei, S., Murphy, C., et al. (2009). Frequent cognitive activity compensates for education differences in episodic memory. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(1), 4–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lampit, A. Hallock, H., Valenzuela, M. (2014). Computerized cognitive training in cognitively healthy older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of effect modifiers. PLOS Medicine, 11(11), e1001756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langa, K. M., Levine, D. A. (2014). The diagnosis and management of mild cognitive impairment: A clinical review. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 312(23), 2551–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lauenroth, A., Ioannidis, A. E., Teichmann, B. (2016). Influence of combined physical and cognitive training on cognition: a systematic review. BMC Geriatrics, 16, 141. Doi: 10.1186/s12877-016-0315-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurin, D., Verreault, R., Lindsay, J., et al. (2001). Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons. Archives of Neurology, 58(3), 498–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lautenschlager, N. T., Cox, K. L., Flicker, L., et al. (2008). Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: A randomized trial. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 300(9), 1027–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, S. C., Lindenberger, U. (2002). Constructed functionality instead of functional normality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 761–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, S. C., Schmiedek, F., Huxhold, O., et al. (2008). Working memory plasticity in old age: practice gain, transfer, and maintenance. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 731–42. Doi: 10.1037/a0014343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, H., Li, J., Li, N., et al. (2011). Cognitive intervention for persons with mild cognitive impairment: A meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 10, 285–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindenberger, U., Baltes, P. B. (1995). Testing the limits and experimental simulation methods to explicate the role of learning in development. Human Development, 38, 349–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindenberger, U., Li, S. C., Bäckman, L. (2006). Delineating brain behavior mappings across the lifespan: Substantive and methodological advances in developmental neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 713–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
López, A., Calero, M. D. (2009). Predictors of Cognitive Impairment in Aging. Spanish Journal of Geriatrics and Gerontology, 44(4), 26–58.Google Scholar
Lövden, M., Bäckman, L., Lindenberger, U., et al. (2010). A theoretical framework for the study of adult cognitive plasticity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 659–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lövdén, M., Schaefer, S., Noack, H., et al. (2012a). Spatial navigation training protects the hippocampus against age-related changes during early and late adulthood. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(3), 620. e9. Doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.02.013.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S., et al. (2012b). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 141. Doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lustig, C., Shah, P., Seidler, R., et al. (2009). Aging, training, and the brain: a review and future directions. Neuropsychology Review, 19(4), 504–22. Doi: 10.1007/s11065-009-9119-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melby-Lervag, M., Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49(2), 270–91. Doi: 10.1037/a0028228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Menec, V. H. (2003). The Relation Between Everyday Activities and Successful Aging: A 6-Year Longitudinal Study. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 58B(2), S74–S82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molina, M. A., Schettini, R., López-Bravo, M. D., et al. (2011). Actividades cognitivas y funcionamiento cognitivo en personas muy mayores. Revista Española de Geriatría y Gerontología, 46(6), 297–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monsalve Robajo, A. M., Rozo Reyes, C. M. (2007). Aproximación conceptual al uso de la integración sensorial en personas con demencia tipo Alzheimer. Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría, XXXVI(2), 321–31.Google Scholar
Navarro, E., Calero, M. D. (2009). Estimation of cognitive plasticity in old adults using dynamic assessment techniques. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 8(1), 38–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noack, H., Lövden, M., Schmiedek, F. (2014). On the validity and generality of transfer effects in cognitive training research. Psychological Research, 78, 773–89. Doi: 10.1007/s00426-014-0564-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyberg, L., Sandblom, J., Stingdotter Neely, A., et al. (2003). Neural correlates of training-related memory improvement in adulthood and aging. Proceeding of the N. Academic Sciences of the USA, 100(23), 1328–33.Google ScholarPubMed
Olajide, O. Ayantunji, E. Mojirade, M. M. (2016). Gerontology and its implications for adult education. European Scientific Journal, 12(13), 321–8.Google Scholar
Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., et al. (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature, 465(7299), U775–U776. Doi: 10.1038/nature09042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parente, R., Stapleton, M. (1997). History and system of cognitive rehabilitation. Neurorehabilitation, 8, 3–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Partanen, P., Jansson, B., Lisspers, J., et al. (2015). Metacognitive strategy training adds to the effects of working memory training in children with special educational needs. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7, 130–40. Doi: 10.5539/ijps.v7n3p13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perani, D., Abutalebi, J. (2015). Bilingualism, dementia, cognitive and neural reserve. Current Opinion Neurology, 28, 618–25. DOI: 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perkins, D. N., Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. In International Encyclopedia of Education, Second Edition. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Raykov, T., Baltes, M., Neher, K., et al. (2002). A comparative study of two psychometric approaches to detect risk status for dementia. Gerontology, 48, 185–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, B. R., Dowling, M., Tomaszewski, S., et al. (2011) Cognitive activities during adulthood are more important than education in building reserve. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 615–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reichman, W. E., Fiocco, A. F., Rose, N. S. (2010). Exercising the brain to avoid cognitive decline: examining the evidence. Aging Health, 6(5), 565–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reijnder, J., van Heugten, C., van Boxtel, M. (2013) Cognitive interventions in healthy older adults and people with mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Ageing Research Reviews, 12, 263–75.Google Scholar
Resnick, B., Galik, E. (2013). Using function-focused care to increase physical activity among older adults. In Annual Review of Nursing Research (pp. 176–208). http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0739-6686.31.175.Google ScholarPubMed
Richards, M., Deary, I. J. (2005). A life course approach to cognitive reserve: a model for cognitive aging and development?. Annual Neurology, 58, 617–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rocca, W., Banaiuto, S., Lippi, A. (1990). Prevalence of Alzheimer´s disease and other dementing disorders: a door to door survey in Appignano, Macerata Province, Italy. Neurology, 40, 626–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenzweig, M. R., Bennett, E. L. (1996). Psychobiology of plasticity: Effects of training and experience on brain and behavior. Behavioral Brain Research, 78, 57–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossi, S., Rossini, P. M. (2004). TMS in cognitive plasticity and the potential for rehabilitation. TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 8(6), 273–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. (2009). When does age-related cognitive decline begin?. Neurobiology and Aging, 30(4), 507–14. Doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging. 2008.09.023.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. (2010a). The paradox of cognitive change. Journal Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(6), 622–9. Doi: 10.1080/13803390903401310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. (2010b). Does the meaning of neurocognitive change, change with age?. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 273–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. (2012). Does the direction and magnitude of cognitive change depend on initial level of ability?. Intelligence, 40, 352–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satz, P. (1993). Brain reserve capacity on symptom onset after brain injury: A formulation and review of evidence for threshold theory. Neuropsychology, 7, 273–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M., et al. (2001). Influence of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer´s disease. Neurology, 57, 2236–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (1978). Externar validity in the assessment of intellectual development in adulthood. Journal of Gerontology, 33(5), 695–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (1994). The course of adult intellectual development. American Psychologist, 49, 304–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L. (1986). Can intellectual decline be reversed?. Developmental Psychology, 22, 223–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Caskie, G. I. L. (2004). The Seattle Longitudinal Study: relationship between personality and cognition. Journal Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 11(2–3), 304–24.Google ScholarPubMed
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Hertzog, C., et al. (1987). Effects of cognitive training on primary metal ability structure. Psychology and Aging, 2, 233–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. A., Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: common principles suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3(4), 207–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmiedek, F., Lövdén, M., Lindenberger, U. (2010). Hundred days of cognitive training enhance broad cognitive abilities in adulthood: findings from the COGITO study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2. DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2010.00027.Google ScholarPubMed
Schreiber, M., Schneider, R. (2007). Cognitive plasticity in people at risk for dementia: Optimising the testing-the-limits-approach. Aging & Mental Health, 11(1), 75–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schubert, T., Strobach, T., Karbach, J. (2014). New directions in cognitive training: on methods, transfer, and application. Psychological Research, 78, 749–55. DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0619-8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, T. E., Lusignolo, T. M., Albert, M., et al. (2001). Social relationships, social support, and patterns of cognitive aging in healthy, high-functioning older adults: MacArthur Studies of Successful Aging. Health Psychology, 20, 243–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shao, Y., Mang, J., Li, P., et al. (2015). Computer-based cognitive programs for improvement of memory, processing speed and executive function during age-related cognitive decline: a meta-analysis. PLOS ONE. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130831.Google ScholarPubMed
Shuch, P., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., et al. (2008). Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old–old adults. Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 743–53. DOI: 10.1037/a0014342.Google Scholar
Singer, T., Lindenberger, U., Baltes, P. B. (2003). Plasticity of memory for new learning in very old age: A story of major loss?. Psychology and Aging, 18, 306–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singley, M. K., Anderson, J. R. (1989). The Transfer of Cognitive Skill. New York: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sitzer, D. I., Twamley, E. W., Jeste, D. V. (2006). Cognitive training in Alzheimer's disease: A meta-analysis of the literature. Acta Psychiatric Scandinavia, 114, 75–90. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00789.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, G. E., Housen, P., Yafe, K., et al. (2009). A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57(4), 594–603.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, P. J., Blumenthal, J. A., Hoffman, B. M., et al. (2010). Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: A meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72(3), 239–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/psy.0b013e3181d14633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, H. M., Corriveau, R. A., Craft, S., et al. (2014). Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia including Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 11(6), 710–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Stein-Parbury, J., Chenoweth, L., Jeon, Y. H., et al. (2012). Implementing person-centered care in residential dementia care. Clinical Gerontologist, 35(5), 404–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stingdotter, A., Bäckman, L. (1993). Long-term maintenance of gains from memory training in older adults: 2 3–1/2-year follow-up studies. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 48, 233–7.Google Scholar
Swanson, H. L., Lussier, C. M. (2001). A selective synthesis of the experimental literature on dynamic assessment. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 321–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taatgen, N. A. (2013). The nature and transfer of cognitive skills. Psychological Review, 120(3), 439–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thinnes, A., Padilla, R. (2011). Effect of educational and supportive strategies on the ability of caregivers of people with dementia to maintain participation in that role. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(5), 541–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Nutley, S. B., et al. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children. Developmental Science, 12(1), 106–13. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00745.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Traverso, L., Viterbori, P., Usai, M. C. (2015). Improving executive function in childhood: evaluation of a training intervention for 5-year-old children. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(525), 1–14. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Uffelen, J. G., Chin, A., Paw, M. J., et al. (2008). The effects of exercise on cognition in older adults with and without cognitive decline: A systematic review. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine: Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 18(6), 486–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/jsm.0b013e3181845f0b.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verghese, J., Lipton, R. B., Katz, M. J., et al. (2003). Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. New England Journal of Medicine, 348(25), 2508–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A., Goossens, L. (1992). Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 7, 242–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voelcker-Rehage, C., Niemann, C. (2013). Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical activity across the life span. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review, 37, 2268–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis, S. L., Tennstedt, S. L., Marsiske, M., et al. (2006). Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(23), 2805–14. Doi: 10.1001/jama.296.23.2805.Google ScholarPubMed
Willis, S. L., Schaie, W. (1986). Training the elderly on the ability factor of spatial orientation and inductive reasoning. Psychology and Aging, 1(3), 239–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis, S. L., Nesselroade, C. S. (1990). Long-term effects of fluid ability training in old-old age. Developmental Psychology, 26, 905–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wischenka, M., Marquez, C., Friberg Felsted, K. (2016). Benefits of physical activity on cognitive functioning in older adults. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 36, 103–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, Y., Prina, A. M., Brayne, C. (2015). The association between community environment and cognitive function: a systematic review. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatrics Epidemiology, 50, 351–62. Doi: 10.1007/s00127-014-0945-6.Google ScholarPubMed
Yang, L., Krampe, R. T., Baltes, P. B. (2006). Basic forms of cognitive plasticity extended to the oldest-old: Retest learning, age, and cognitive functioning. Psychology and Aging, 21, 372–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Glymour, M. M., Sparks, C., et al. (2011). Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the Victoria longitudinal study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, 1039–46. Doi: 10.1017/S1355617711001044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zahodne, L. B., Nowinski, C. J., Gershon, R. C., et al. (2014). Which psychosocial factors best predict cognitive performance in older adults?. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20, 487–95. Doi: 10.1017/S1355617714000186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zajac-Lampaska, L., Trempala, J. (2016). Effects of working memory and attentional control training and their transfer onto fluid intelligence in early and late adulthood. Health Psychology Report, 4(1), 41–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhender, F., Martin, M., Altgassen, M., et al. (2009). Memory training effects in old age as markers of plasticity: A meta-analysis. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27, 507–20.Google Scholar
Zhu, X., Yinb, S., Langa, M., et al. (2016). The more the better? A meta-analysis on effects of combined cognitive and physical intervention on cognition in healthy older adults. Ageing Research Reviews. Doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2016.07.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×