Microfilariae of Brugia malayi were obtained from the peritoneal cavities of infected gerbils and were then injected intravenously into mice. A sub-periodic, nocturnal microfilaraemia was produced. The level of microfilaraemia was proportional to the number of parasites injected, with approximately 1–3% of microfilariae being found in the peripheral circulation. The duration of microfilaraemia was proportional to the number of parasites injected; it subsided by 30 days after injection of 104 microfilariae but was still present at a low level 120 days after injection of 2 × 105 microfilariae. A transient splenomegaly developed after injection of microfilariae. Histopathological examination revealed large numbers of microfilariae free in the lumens of pulmonary small blood vessels and without any accompanying inflammatory reaction. Lesser numbers of microfilariae were seen in the cardiac blood and hepatic and renal blood vessels for the first few days after injection. There was cellular proliferation in the splenic white pulp and vascular congestion of the red pulp. Microfilariae labelled with 51Cr were injected intravenously; 57% of radioactivity was found in the lungs, 8·5% in the liver and 2·9% in the spleen. Mice developed immediate hypersensitivity reactions to B. malayi antigen by 4 weeks after injection, but Arthus and delayed hypersensitivity reactions were not seen at any time. When mice which had been injected 5 months previously were challenged with a 2nd injection of microfilariae, there was an accelerated clearance of parasites over 2 weeks and a marked peripheral blood eosinophilia developed. In contrast with natural infections, in which the continuous production of microfilariae complicates assessment, this model provides a system in which factors controlling the circulation of microfilariae in the bloodstream can be studied independently.

Amastigotes of 2 Leishmania species are reported from the Pakistani lizards Teratoscincus scincus (Gekkonidae) and Agama agilis (Agamidae) collected in western Baluchistan and north-central Sind, respectively. Parasites were seen only in blood cells, primarily within thrombocytes, and were detected on smears of peripheral blood. Slides made at 3-day intervals for 38 days from an infected hatchling T. scincus demonstrated an increase with time in the mean number of amastigotes/infected thrombocyte. No evidence of an infection focus in fixed cells of the viscera was found. It is suggested, in view of reports of amastigotes in circulating blood cells of hosts belonging to 5 genera, collected in 5 countries from India to France, that saurian Leishmania may behave simply as parasites of circulating blood cells, thus illustrating an early stage in the adaptation of leishmanias to the vertebrate host.

Two 8-week experiments were conducted to determine the relationships between nutritional stress and pathophysiological changes in male Holstein calves infected with Sarcocystis cruzi. Calves were infected by oral inoculation with 200000 S. cruzi sporocysts. In the first experiment weight gain reduction was greatest in inoculated calves during weeks 4 and 5 after inoculation. Feed intake was reduced during the 5th week. Erythrocyte count was reduced during week 5 and haemoglobin was reduced during week 6. The 24-h excretion of urinary and urea nitrogen from the inoculated calves was increased by treatment. In the 2nd experiment, both the feed-restricted and inoculated calves lost weight during weeks 4 and 5; feed intake was lower from week 5 to 8 inclusive. Urine volume from inoculated calves was lower during week 8. Lower urine excretions of sodium and potassium resulted from S. cruzi inoculation. There was a non-significant trend for higher urinary zinc excretion in the inoculated group during week 4. Urine nitrogen excretion from inoculated calves was higher during weeks 4 and 6; nitrogen excretion from the feed-restricted group was higher during week 6. The urinary excretion of 3-methylhistidine from the inoculated calves was higher during week 4 and excretion of guanine was higher during weeks 4, 5 and 8. S. cruzi has several specific pathophysiological effects on calves beyond those induced by nutritional stress.

Antigenic relationships of 4 stocks of Trypanosoma congolense from different parts of Africa were examined by immunofluorescence (IFAT) and neutralization tests. Antisera to each stock were obtained from rabbits infected with trypanosomes transmitted by Glossina morsitans. Trypanosomes for use as antigens were obtained from local skin reactions developing on rabbits infected with 2 of the stocks. Using the IFAT and antisera at end-point dilutions approximately 40% of the trypanosomes fluoresced strongly and a further 30% less intensely with homologous antisera, indicating antigenic heterogeneity among the trypanosomes developing in the skin. Using antisera at low dilutions some samples gave cross-reactions with trypanosomes of heterologous stocks, but at higher dilutions there were no cross-reactions with either of the antigens. The lack of cross-reactions at high antiserum dilutions was interpreted as indicating antigenic differences between the 4 trypanosome stocks. Using neutralization tests only homologous antisera reduced the infectivity of trypanosome suspensions. Overall, these observations indicated that there were at least 3 different strains of T. congolense among the 4 stocks examined.

Administration of the immunostimulants Corynebacterium parvum, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) or Bordetella pertussis prior to, or at the same time as, challenge with Trypanosoma congolense significantly increased survival times in mice, both of trypano-susceptible (A/J) and trypano-resistant (C57Bl) strains. The increased survival time was associated with significant alterations in parasitaemia, which included lengthening of the pre-patent period, a delay in the time taken to reach the first peak of parasitaemia and a reduction in the level of parasitaemia. Similar results were obtained when these strains of mice were challenged with Trypanosoma brucei following pre-treatment with C. parvum. Thus, by the use of immunostimulants it was possible to reduce the susceptibility of mice to trypanosomiasis and the hope is that this can also be achieved with domestic livestock.

The cell-mediated resistance of human leucocytes to Trypanosoma dionisii, a bat parasite related to T. cruzi, was investigated. Human peripheral blood neutrophils and monocytes were cytotoxic to T. dionisii as assessed by electron microscopy and by induction of 99mTc release from trypanosomes pre-labelled with [99mTc]pertechnetate. The enhancement of cytotoxicity by specific antiserum varied considerably from one individual to another. Neither blood lymphocytes nor blood eosinophils induced 99mTc release from T. dionisii. The trypanosomes were readily phagocytosed by neutrophils and monocytes even in the absence of added antiserum but the rate was enhanced when antiserum was present. Eosinophils also phagocytosed T. dionisii but only in the presence of antiserum. Investigation by electron microscopy revealed that T. dionisii is rapidly destroyed in the phagocytic vacuole of neutrophils and monocytes and by eosinophils. Phagocytosis, ultrastructural damage and induction of 99mTc release occurred more rapidly in neutrophils than in monocytes.

A microsporidian parasite, Nosema eurytremae, was fed to Lymnaea trunculata infected with Fasciola hepatica. Microsporidian infection of the snail was always light, though spores were present in all tissues, but the rediae became heavily infected in the parenchyma. The proportion of infected rediae increased with time and was especially high in ageing infections. Although rediae were only lightly infected when examined before cercarial release began, the infections became progressively heavier, so that towards the end of the life of the snails a high proportion of rediae were totally destroyed and contained no cercariae. Cercarial output was significantly depressed over a long period of active shedding by snails which had been hyperinfected with 1 × 10 6 spores and some of the liberated cercariae were themselves infected.

In vitro excretory/secretory products of 4-week (immature) and 8- week-old (mature) Fasciola hepatica parasites, derived from rats, were injected together with adjuvant into naive rats and mice. Resistance to infection was assessed in rats by counting adults in the bile ducts at 9 weeks, or in mice by recording deaths after oral challenge with a high dose of viable metacercariae. Exposure of rats to excretory/secretory products of immature F. hepatica conferred a significant degree of resistance which was comparable to the level of resistance induced following oral administration of a low number of metacercariae. No protection against infection was seen in rats injected with excretory/secretory products from mature, bile duct-derived worms. In mice, no obvious mouse strain variation in susceptibility to first infection existed and hypothymic nude mice were as susceptible to infection as intact mice. As determined by protection against death, vaccination with excretory/secretory products derived from immature P. hepatica was without effect in mice. It is concluded that ‘host protective antigens’, at least for rats, were present in the excretory/secretory products of immature F. hepatica larvae.

One-worm infections of Hymenolepis diminuta in rats had their strobila severed surgically, in the neck region, on day 14 of an infection. The scolex and remaining strobila survived but were recovered from a more posterior region of the intestine where small worms are attached during development. The movement to the new region was usually not complete in 24 h, but was complete by 72 h, and probably by 48 h. The operation, involving laparotomy and an incision in the duodenal wall which avoided severing the strobila, had no effect on the position of the worm but did depress the growth of the worm during the ensuing 24 h. It is suggested that (1) the preferred site for H. diminuta is 30–50 % down the small intestine, (2) the worm monitors information about its position from all over its strobila and (3) as the worm grows, its position is determined by balancing the input of adverse information from its tail and head ends. The slowness with which surgically shortened worms return to the preferred site may be due either to delay in the worm ‘realising’ it has no tail, or to the location stimuli in the intestine being disturbed for 24 h by the operation.

Studies on the biology of Notocotylus attenuatus in the domestic fowl were undertaken with the aim of determining where in the alimentary system the metacercariae excyst and how soon the juvenile worms become established in the caecum of the host. The metacercariae were found to excyst in the lower intestine and juvenile worms were recovered from the caecum after 4 h. Thereafter, as the worms increased in size they changed their position relative to the viii and also moved down the caecum, coming to lie in the blind ending region as the worms approached maturity.

Intact Angiostrongylus cantonensis is able to hydrolyse glucose-phosphate esters, mononucleotides and p-nitrophenyl phosphate as well as β-glycerophosphate in vitro. Reciprocal inhibition studies suggest that the hydrolysis of such substrates is due to a non-specific phosphomonoesterase. Molybdate ions, which exert no effect on either the uptake of glucose or the production of lactate, inhibit the hydrolysis of glucose-1- phosphate in the external medium and simultaneously lower the production of lactate by the intact worms in vitro.

Pseudechetus fimbriatus gen. et sp.nov. from the throat of a carangid is described. The new genus has the closest resemblance to Parechetus Pillai from which it differs in the presence of 4 processes instead of 2 on the genital segment and a pair of processes on the abdomen instead of wings. The sternal fork carries accessory tines anteriorly making it a double structure.

Freshwater shrimp, Palaemonetes paludosus, infected by the bopyrid isopod, Probopyrus pandalicola, occurred as far as 33 km upstream in many coastal rivers and canals throughout Florida. Free-swimming isopod larvae and the intermediate copepod host, Acartia tonsa, were collected in the plankton of the Wakulla River, and it appeared that cryptoniscus larvae swam at least as far as 13 km upstream to infect the definitive shrimp host after leaving the copepod in brackish water. In the Wakulla River infection levels ranged from 87·5 to 100%. In contrast, at McBride's Slough infection levels fluctuated from 0·9 to 93·2%. In the St Marks River the frequency of infected shrimp gradually increased from 0% upstream to 96%, 6 km further downstream. A significantly greater percentage of female than male hosts were infected, but only females of size classes less than 31 mm long had a greater frequency of infection. Female P. pandalicola were greatly under-dispersed (coefficient of dispersion (s2/x¯) less than 1) throughout the host population; 99·6% of the infected hosts carried only 1 female parasite. Control of P. pandalicola at the infrapopulation level is probably accomplished by some mode of intraspecific competition, and control at the suprapopulation level occurs through an upstream limitation of the transmission range of the cryptoniscus larval stage. Host–parasite interactions appear to be unstable.

The immunological differences known to exist between laboratory strains of Eimeria maxima was confirmed. Protection against challenge with different strains or field isolates of the species could be achieved by including small numbers (25 oocysts) of each in the immunizing inoculum. Similar protection was obtained when 4 distinct populations which were allowed to interbreed were used in the immunizing inoculum. This hybrid mixture of E. maxima was used to immunize chickens against challenge with 7 new isolates of E. maxima from poultry houses in different parts of England. The results show that although immunological differences exist within E. maxima good protection against many strains of this species may be achieved by initial infection with the hybrid mixture of E. maxima.