Hostname: page-component-7bb8b95d7b-l4ctd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-09-20T18:42:20.794Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Atomic-Powered Communism: Nuclear Culture in the Postwar USSR

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Paul R. Josephson
Paul R. Josephson*
Affiliation:
Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

In 1953, just after Stalin's death, the Soviet state machine tool publishing house released A. A. Kanaev's From the Water Wheel to the Atomic Engine (Ot vodianoi mel'nitsy do atomnogo dvigateli). Like other books and articles published in the popular and scientific press in the USSR in this period, From the Water Wheel to the Atomic Engine explored the political, economic, and cultural significance of an incipient “atomic century” and touted the nearly limitless applications of the power of the atom in agriculture, medicine, and industry. Indeed, there was little doubt among scientists, engineers, economic planners, and party officials that the Soviet Union would soon enter the stage of “communist construction”: communism would be achieved within their lifetimes, owing to the omniscient leadership of the Communist Party and on the basis of the achievements of science and technology. By the end of the decade, the average Soviet citizen, too, came to believe that the glorious future had arrived. Many people wrote letters to prominent physicists with suggestions on how to tame the power of the atom to improve the quality of life. For citizens, scientists, and officials alike, successes in atomic energy provided undeniable confirmation that at long last society had embarked on the final leg of the long journey to communism.

Type
Articles
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 55 , Issue 2 , Summer 1996 , pp. 297 - 324
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

I would like to thank Lyde Sizer, Che Ogunyemi, Komozi Woodard, David Castriota, Bob Desjarlais, Sandra Robinson, Susan Solomon, and the anonymous reviewer of this article for their suggestions. I would also like to thank the National Endowment for the Humanities, International Research and Exchanges Board, Fulbright-Hays Research Abroad Program, the National Council for Soviet and East European Research, the Russian Research Center at Harvard University, and the Dibner Institute for supporting research leading to this article.

1. For the history of some of these “hero projects,” see Coopersmith, Jonathan, The Electrification of Russia, 1880–1926 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992)Google Scholar; Rassweiler, Anne, The Generation of Power: The History of Dneprostroi (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; and Josephson, Paul, “‘Projects of the Century’ in Soviet History: Large-Scale Technologies from Lenin to Gorbachev,” in Technology and Culture 36, no. 3 (July 1995): 519–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2. For a recent study of the interaction of politics, culture, and ideology in the development of a large-scale technology in another authoritarian regime, see Neufeld, Michael, The Rocket and the Reich (New York: Free Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

3. On the technological and economic determinism of Marxism, see Cohen, G. A., Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978)Google Scholar.

4. In his recent The Ghost of the Executed Engineer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), Loren Graham examines the development of engineering culture in the USSR.

5. Josephson, Paul, “Rockets, Reactors and Soviet Culture,” in Graham, Loren, ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 168–91Google Scholar.

6. For a discussion of the impact of nuclear weapons on Stalin's military policy, see Holloway, David, Stalin and the Bomb (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 224–52Google Scholar.

7. “Ispol'zovanie atomnoi energii v mirnykh tseliakh i sovetskaia nauka,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1955, no. 7: 3–5, and “Ispol'zovanie atomnoi energii v mirnykh tseliakh,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1955, no. 8: 34–46.

8. XX Sʺezd KPSS: Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Politizdat, 1956), 1:595–600. For a discussion of some of these fantastic, futuristic projects, a number of which the United States also pursued, see Sushkov, Iu. N., Atomnaia energiia i avialsiia (Moscow: Znanie, 1958)Google Scholar; and Ermakov, A. P. and Syrman, A. G., Atomnaia energiia i transport (Moscow, 1963)Google Scholar; as well as the more popular Perel'man, R. G., “Atomnye dvigateli,” Nauka i zhizn', 1956, no. 1: 26–32 Google Scholar; Mezentsev, V. A., “Na poroge atomnogo veka,” Nauka i zhizn', 1956, no. 1: 5–14 Google Scholar; and Markin, A., “Atom na sluzhbe cheloveka,” Smena, 1955, no. 1: 18–19 Google Scholar. Nuclear power would figure again in the speeches of Kurchatov and Khrushchev at the XXI (Extraordinary) Party Congress in 1959 (see Vneocherednoi XXI sʺezd KPSS: Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1959), 2:179–83.

9. Arkhiv Instituta Atomnoi Energii im. Kurchatova (hereafter A KIAE), f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 14.

10. A. D. Sakharov, “O radioaktivnoi opasnosti iadernykh ispytanii,” unpub. ms. (24 May 1958), A KIAE. On Sakharov's efforts to gain a test ban, see Sakharov, Andrei, Memoirs (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1990), 197–204, 207–9, 215–18Google Scholar.

11. Aleksei Tarasov, “Krasnoiarsku-26 vygodno ostavat'sia zakrytym ot mira,” Iz. vestiia, 28 September 1993. See also “Russia's Secret Cities,” The Economist, 25 December 1993–7 January 1994, 65–68.

12. For a discussion of the economic, political, and technical background to the premature acceptance of large nuclear technologies, see Medvedev, Zhores, The Legacy of Chernobyl (New York: Norton, 1990), 226–62Google Scholar; and Josephson, Paul, “Atomic Energy and ‘Atomic Culture’ in the USSR: The Ideological Roots of Economic and Safety Problems Facing the Nuclear Power Industry after Chernobyl,” in Anthony Jones, T., Powell, David, and Connor, Walter, eds., Soviet Social Problems (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 55–77 Google Scholar.

13. For minimal risks of food irradiation, see Jones, Julie Miller, Food Safety (St. Paul: Eagan Press, 1992), 301–30Google Scholar.

14. Kuzin, A. M., “Mechenye atomy v biologii,” Nauka i zhizn', 1955, no. 4: 29–32 Google Scholar; Kurdinovskii, Iu. P., “Luchi, rozhdennye atomom,” Nauka i zhizn', 1956, no. 3: 17–21 Google Scholar; Pertsovskii, E. S., “Energiiu atoma-pishchevoi promyshlennosti,” Nauka i zhizn', 1956, no. 8: 17–20 Google Scholar; Rubin, B. A., et al., “Ispol'zovanie gamma-luchei pri dlitel'nom khranenii kartofel'ia,” Priroda, 1958, no. 7: 91–94 Google Scholar; Topchiev, A. V., et al., “Primenenie radioaktivnykh izotopov v SSSR,” Atomnaia energiia 5, no. 3 (1958): 321–33Google Scholar; and Sokolovskii, A., “Izuchenie ekonomicheskoi effektivnosti ispol'zovaniia izotopov,” Voprosy ekonomiki, 1959, no. 12: 166–67Google Scholar. In October 1958 N. I. Mitkov, the director of the Institute of Oil of the Academy of Sciences, wrote Kurchatov to thank him for his help in developing the first portable neutron generators for active analysis of ore deposits in the field (see A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 72/4).

15. Teller, Edward, Better a Shield Than a Sword (New York: Free Press, 1987), 112 Google Scholar.

16. On the history of Project Plowshares, see Teller, Edward with Brown, Allen, The Legacy of Hiroshima (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1962), 82–92 Google Scholar.

17. Mezentsev, “Na poroge,” 7.

18. Markin, “Atom na sluzhbe,” 18.

19. Nordyke, Milo D., “A Review of Soviet Data on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosions,” Annals of Nuclear Energy 2 (1975): 657–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nordyke, “Memorandum: New Results from a Recent Soviet Publication on the Soviet PNE Program,” 24 July 1981, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory; and G. P. Ledbetter and M. D. Nordyke, A Bibliography of Published Material Related to the Soviet PNE Program, 22 November 1977, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. See also Kruglov, A. K., “Atomnaia nauka i tekhnika—narodnomu khoziaistvu strany,” Atomnaia energiia, 50, no. 2 (February 1981): 82–84 Google Scholar, and Teller, Edward, Constructive Uses of Nuclear Explosives (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968)Google Scholar.

20. On atomic engines, see Perel'man, R. G., “Atomnye dvigateli,” Nauka i zhizn', 1956, no. 1: 32 Google Scholar; E. Maksimova, “Put’k Obninsku,” Izvestiia, 1 October 1967, 5; and A. M. Petros'iants, “Atomnaia nauka i tekhnika,” Trud, 24 October 1967, 4. For a brief outline of flying nuclear apparatuses, see Ponomarev-Stepnoi, N. N., “Iadernaia energiia v letatel'nykh apparatakh,” in Materialy iubileinoi sessii uchenogo soveta tsentra (Moscow: Rossiiskii nauchnyi tsentr “Kurchatovskii institut,” 1993), 40–62 Google Scholar. On the environmental dangers of these devices, see William J. Broad, “Radioactive Debris in Space Threatens Satellites in Use,” New York Times, 26 February 1995, 12; Kim Smirnov, “Vse nashi radioaktivnye zakhoroneniia v moriakh rassekrecheny,” Izvestiia, 7 August 1993, 15; Viktor Litovkin, “93 podvodnykh atomokhoda zhdut v rossii utilizatsii, no deneg na eto u gosudarstva net,” Izvestiia, 9 August 1993, 4; and Igor’ Tsarev, et al., “Skandal na iadernoi pomoike,” Trud, 22 October 1993. The U.S. record at Hanford, Washington, Fernald, Ohio, and the Savannah plant in South Carolina, is little better (see, for instance, Michele Gerber, Stenehjem, On the Home Front: The Cold War Legacy of Hanford [Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992]Google Scholar).

21. Skvortsov, S. A. and Sidorenko, V. A., “Nuclear Heat Supply,” Soviet Atomic Energy 48, no. 4 (1980): 223–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22. “Ispol'zovanie teplykh vod TES i AES v narodnom khoziiastve,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1975, no. 12: 68–75.

23. Kunitsyn, Ivan and Nikolaev, Aleksei, “Po donu guliaet … ‘mirnyi’ atom,” Iunost', 1990, no. 4: 40–45 Google Scholar.

24. Koriakin, Iu. I. and Loginov, A. A., “Atomnaia energiia i opresnenie solenykh vod,” Atomnaia energiia 20, no. 3 (1966): 232–43Google Scholar.

25. A. P. Aleksandrov, “Ispolinskii atom,” Izvestiia, 31 December 1964, 3. See also Aleksandrov, , “Budushchee energetiki,” Sovetskii fizik, no. 5 (344) (11 February 1976): 1–3 Google Scholar. For a collection of his articles and addresses, see Aleksandrov, Nauka-strane (Moscow: Nauka, 1983).

26. See Neporozhnyi, P. S., ed., Stroitel'stvo teplovykh i atomnykh elektrostantsii, 2 vols. (Moscow: Stroizdat, 1979)Google Scholar.

27. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb.

28. See Soyfer, Valery N., Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science, trans. Gruliow, Leo and Gruliow, Rebecca (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 223–70Google Scholar, for the paradox of Lysenko's continued authority under Khrushchev.

29. A KIAE, f. 20, op. 1, ed. khr. 70/17.

30. Za nauku v sibiri, no. 45 (122) (18 November 1963): 4, and Dubinin, N. P., Vechnoe dvizhenie (Moscow: Izdatpolit, 1973), 365–79Google Scholar.

31. V. Gubarev, “Dva poliusa zhizni,” Komsomol'skaia pravda, 27 February 1965, 4.

32. Za nauku v sibiri, no. 17 (42) (24 April 1962): 3; and Salganik, R., “Kod geneticheskoi informatsii raschifrovan,” Za nauka v sibiri, no. 17(42) (24 April 1962): 3 Google Scholar.

33. Granin, Daniil, The Bison: A Novel about the Scientist Who Defied Stalin, trans. Bouis, Antonina W. (New York: Doubleday, 1990), 206–8Google Scholar.

34. Sakharov had joined the battle against Lysenkoism in the late 1950s over the need to evaluate the effect of low-level radiation on living organisms. See Sakharov, Memoirs, 233–40; and Soyfer, Lysenko and the Tragedy of Soviet Science, 265–68, 278–79.

35. Arkhiv Akademii Nauk SSSR, f. 596, op. 2, ed. khr. 172–74. See also A. S. Sonin, “Soveshchanie, kotoroe ne sostoialos',” Priroda, March 1990, no. 3: 97–102, as well as Sonin's unpublished manuscript on the same subject.

36. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 71/14.

37. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 381, and ed. khr. 382. See also Sonin, A. S., “The Newspaper Red Fleet versus Idealism in Physics,” Herald of the USSR Academy of Sciences 61, no. 1 (1991): 70–75 Google Scholar.

38. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 67/20 and ed. khr. 67/21.

39. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 68/8; ed. khr. 67/47; ed. khr. 67/44; and ed. khr. 68/16, 11. 1–7.

40. A KIAE, f. 20, op. 1, ed. khr. 70/30.

41. A KIAE, f. 20, op. 1, ed. khr. 70/51.

42. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 14, 1. 75; and Khabibullaev, P. K., “V institute iadernoi fiziki AN Uzbekskoi SSR,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1982, no. 5: 61–66 Google Scholar. The scientific lyricist Dan'il Danin, well known for his biographies of Rutherford and Bohr, as well as for shedding light on the myth of two cultures in the USSR through a discussion of “fiziki i liriki,” described in glowing prose the new Tashkent and Tbilisi experimental reactors and their “neutrons in kind hands” for a huge audience in the main Soviet literary weekly (see Danin, “Neitrony v dobrykh rukakh,” Literaturnaia gazeta, 16 September 1961, 1–2).

43. Veldre, V. la., “Novyi iaclernyi reaktor,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1962, no. 11: 88–90 Google Scholar. See also “Pervyi atomnyi v pribaltike,” Trud, 30 September 1961, 4, and V. Gavar, “Poleznaia radiatsiia,” Sovetskaia latviia, 7 December 1973.

44. Karsin, A. K., et al., Atomnaia energiia 24, no. 4 (1968): 307–11Google Scholar, and A. Krasin, “Atom sluzhit liudiam,” Sovetskaia belorussiia, 27 June 1974, 2.

45. Gaile, G., “Ob opyte vnedreniia radioaktivnykh izotopov i iadernykh izluchenii na predpriiatiiakh narodnogo khoziaistva Latviiskoi SSR,” Izvestiia AN Latviiskoi SSSR, 1960, no. 7: 163–71Google Scholar, and “Atom sluzhit cheloveku,” Zaria vostoka, 20 February 1974.

46. On the purges in Ukrainian physics, see Shubnikov, L. V., Izbrannye trudy: Vospominaniia (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1990)Google Scholar; Leipunskii, A. I., Izbrannye trudy: Vospominaniia (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1990)Google Scholar; and Weissberg, Alexander, The Accused (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1951)Google Scholar. On Landau, see Gennadii Gorelik, “Za chto sidel Lev Landau,” Izvestiia, 9 January 1992, 4. On the history of nuclear physics in Ukraine, see Inopin, E. V., et al., Ocherkipo istorii razvitiia iadernoi fiziki v SSSR (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1982)Google Scholar; Ivanov, V. E., et al., 50 let Khar'kovskomu fiziko-tekhniclieskomu institutu AN USSR (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1978)Google Scholar; Leipunskii, A. I., Izbrannye trudy: Vospominaniia, ed. Gromov, B. F. (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1990)Google Scholar; A. P. Trofimenko, “Istoriia razvitiia iadernykh issledovanii na Ukraine” (candidate dissertation, Institute of History of Science and Technology, Moscow, 1974); Shpak, M. T., “K 50-letiiu instituta fiziki AN USSR,” Ukrainskii fizicheskii zhurnal 24, no. 2 (February 1979): 145–54Google Scholar; Atomnaia energiia 53, no. 5 (1982): 296–301, on UFTI, and the pedestrian and formal, if encyclopedic Khramov, Iu. A., Istoriia formirovaniia i razvitiia fizicheskikh shkol na Ukraine (Kiev: MP “Feniks,” 1991)Google Scholar. And on nuclear energetics in Ukraine, see Marples, David, The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Medvedev, Grigori, The Truth about Chernobyl (New York: Basic Books, 1991)Google Scholar; Shcherback, Iurii, Chernobyl: A Documentary Story, trans. Ian Press (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Medvedev, Legacy of Chernobyl.

47. Arkhiv Fizicheskogo Instituta Akademii Nauk Ukrainskoi SSR (hereafter A FI ANUkrSSR), op. 2, ed. khr. 11, 11. 1, 14.

48. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 71/8,11. 1–4. Worse still were problems in securing the early release of scientists from service in the Red Army and the special rations for them that delayed the completion of repairs for more than a year.

49. In February 1960, during one of the periodic campaigns in Soviet history against dual employment practices, such leading UFTI physicists as A. I. Akhiezer, A. K. Valter, I. M. Lifshits, and la. B. Feinberg again enlisted Kurchatov's help, this time to get government permission for ten scientists to hold two jobs simultaneously, one at the institute, the other in a higher educational institution, to accelerate training of young Ukrainian scientists for nascent programs in high energy physics and fusion (see A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 68/15).

50. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 2, ed. khr. 153, 11. 14–15.

51. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 1, ed. khr. 185.

52. Davidov, O. S. (A. S. Davydov), Atomnaia energiia (Naukovo-populiarna biblioteka) (Kiev: Derzhavne vidavnitstvo tekhnichnoi literaturi ukraini, 1946)Google Scholar.

53. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 1, ed. khr. 284.

54. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 1, ed. khr. 440, 11. 1–5, 9, 14–21, 34.

55. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 1, ed. khr. 710, 1. 14.

56. A FI ANUkrSSR, op. 1, ed. khr. 487; ed. khr. 529, 11. 1–15; ed. khr. 476, 11. 1, 30–32; ed. khr. 613, 11. 1–3, 12, 24, 27, 34, 38–41, and ed. khr. 614, 11. 3–16.

57. See, for example, “Perepiska po vypolneniiu postanovleniiu prezidiuma AN UkSSR, 1980,” and “Perepiska po vypolneniiu postanovleniiu prezidiuma AN UkSSR, 1984,” in Arkhiv Instituta Iadernoi Fiziki AN UkrSSR.

58. “Otchety o vypolnenii planov naucho-issledovatel'skikh rabot instituta za 1985 god,” Arkhiv Instituta Iadernoi Fiziki Sibirskogo Otdeleniia AN SSSR, f. 1, op. 1, ed. khr. 123,11. 8, 10, 16, 22; “Plan rabot po sozdaniiu i vnedreniiu rezul'tatov NIR Instituta v narodnoe khoziaistvo na 1985 god,” ed. khr. 122, 11. 4–7; and “Sil'notochnye uskoriteli dlia nauchnykh i promyshlennykh tselei,” Techsnabexport brochure, ed. khr. 3, 11. 4–7.

59. On the extent of this orientation of the Leningrad Institute for Nuclear Physics research program, see, for example, Arkhiv Leningradskogo Instituta Iadernoi Fiziki, f. 3, op. 1, ed. khr. 52, “Otchet o nauchno-issledovatel'skoi deiatel'nosti instituta za 1967 god,” and “O deiatel'nosti i perspektivakh razvitiia Leningradskogo Instituta Iadernoi Fiziki im. B. P. Konstantinova AN SSSR,” Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1979, no. 7: 3–11.

60. “Ot volgi—k Angare,” Elektrosila, 14 (Leningrad-Moscow: Gosenergoizdat, 1956), 3–4; N. P. Ivanov, R. A. Liuter, et al., “Moshchnye gidrogeneratory,” ibid., 5–11; and G. I. D'iachenko, G. M. Khutoretskii, “Turbogeneratory moshchnost'iu 800 i 1, 200 Mvt,” ibid., 28 (Leningrad: LO Energoizdat, 1970), 22–24; and Iu. V. Aroshidze, “Turbogeneratorostroenie, ‘Elektrolsily’ v XI piatiletke,” ibid., 33 (1981), 3–5.

61. On science and popular culture in the 1920s, see James Andrews, “The Popularization of the Natural Sciences and Technology in Revolutionary Russia” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1994).

62. See, for instance, Dan'il Danin, Neizbezhnosl'strannogo mira (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961); Danin, , Perekrestok (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1974)Google Scholar; Oleg Moroz, Svet ozarenii (1980), Moroz, Zhazhda istiny (1984); Moroz, , Prekrasna li istina? (Moscow: Znanie, 1989)Google Scholar; and Moroz, , Ol imeni nauki (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989)Google Scholar.

63. On scientific prose and the popularization of science, see Kuchment, Mark “Bridging the Two Cultures: The Emergence of Scientific Prose,” in Graham, , ed., Science and the Soviet Social Order, 325–40Google Scholar; and Kapitza, Sergei, “Issues in the Popularization of Science,” Impact of Science on Society, 1988, no. 152: 317–26Google Scholar.

64. A KIAE, f. 2, op. 1., ed. khr. 72/22, ed. khr. 72/3, ed. khr. 70/23, and ed. khr. 70/22.

65. Sakharov, Memoirs, 139.

66. One exception is Vorob'ev, E. I. and Margulis, U. la., Alomnaia energiia i protivoatomnaia zashchita (Moscow: Minzdrav, 1956), 36–59 Google Scholar.

67. See, for instance, Il'ia Erenburg, “O lune, o zemle, o serdtse,” Literaturnaia gazeta, 1 January 1960, 3.

68. On Baikal, water pollution, and water use policies, see Goldman, Marshall, The Spoils of Progress: Environmental Pollution in the Soviet Union (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1972)Google Scholar; Gustafson, Thane, Reform in Soviet Politics: Lessons of Recent Policies on Land and Water (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Suslova, G. A., ed., Slovo v zashchitu Baikala: Materialy diskussii (Irkutsk: Vostochno-sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, 1987)Google Scholar. On river diversion, see Darst, Robert Jr., “Environmentalism in the USSR: The Opposition to the River Diversion Projects,” Soviet Economy 4, no. 3 (1988): 223–52Google Scholar.

69. Murray Feshbach and Alfred Friendly, Jr., Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature under Seige (New York: Basic Books, 1992). Let us keep in mind the fact that in the United States physicists pursued similar programs, if with greater regard for human safety and the environment. See Hilgartner, Stephen, Bell, Richard, and O'Connor, Rory, Nukespeak (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1982)Google Scholar; Ford, Daniel, The Cult of the Atom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982)Google Scholar; and Gerber, On the Homefront.

70. Iaroshinskaia, Alia, Chernobyl': Sovershenno sekretno (Moscow: Drugie berega, 1992), 447, 457Google Scholar.