Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T14:36:57.552Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From the jumping Frenchmen of Maine to posttraumatic stress disorder: the startle response in neuropsychiatry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

Robert Howard  and
Rodney Ford
Robert Howard*
Affiliation:
Maudsley Hospital; Department of Psychiatry, St George's Hospital, London
Rodney Ford
Affiliation:
Maudsley Hospital; Department of Psychiatry, St George's Hospital, London
*
1 Address for correspondence: Dr Robert Howard, The Maudsley Hospital, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AZ.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Synopsis

The startle response is a universal and phylogenetically ancient reflex. Pathological exaggerations and modifications of startle underlie the symptomatology of a surprisingly diverse range of neuropsychiatric disorders, a fact that seems to have gone largely unappreciated. We review the available literature on the physiology of the normal human startle response and examine the neuropsychiatric conditions characterized by pathological startle. Startle epilepsy and primary hyperekplexia are considered as neurological disorders involving abnormal startle. Patients with hyperstartle and exotic culture-bound syndromes characterized by excessive startle are considered by the authors to represent extreme variants of the normal startle response. Post-traumatic stress disorder, drug and alcohol withdrawal states and schizophrenia all have abnormal startle as a clinical feature secondary to increased arousal and presumed disturbance of central neurotransmitter systems. The neurophysiological mechanisms by which abnormalities of the startle response may occur are discussed and a system of classification of neuropsychiatric hyperstartles is suggested.

Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 22 , Issue 3 , August 1992 , pp. 695 - 707
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aberle, D. F. (1952). Arctic hysteria and Latah in Malaysia. New York Academy of Sciences 14, 291–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aguglia, U., Tinuper, P. & Gastaut, H. (1984) Startle-induced epileptic seizures. Epilepsia 25, 712–720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alajouanine, A. & Gastaut, H. (1955). La syncinèse-sursaut et l'épilepsie-sursaut à déclanchement sensoriel ou sensitif inopiné. Revue Neurologique 93, 29–41.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn, revised (DSM-III-R). APA: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Andermann, F. & Andermann, E. (1986) Excessive startle syndromes: startle disease, jumping and startle epilepsy. In Myoclonus (ed. Fahn, S., Marsden, C. D. and Woert, W. Van), pp. 321–338. Raven Press: New York.Google ScholarPubMed
Andermann, F., Keene, D. L., Andermann, E. & Quesney, L. F. (1980). Startle disease or hyperekplexia, further delineation of the syndrome. Brain 103, 985–997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashton, H. (1984). Benzodiazepine withdrawal; an unfinished story. British Medical Journal 228, 1135–1140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Averill, J. A. (1980). A constructionist view of emotion. In Emotion: Theory, Research and Experience (ed. Plutchik, R. and Kellerman, H.), pp. 305–340. Academic Press: New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bancaud, J., Talairach, J. & Bonis, A. (1967). Physiopathogénie des épilepsies – sursaut (à propos d'une épilepsie de l'aire motrice supplémentaire). Revue Neurologique 117, 441–453.Google Scholar
Beard, G. (1878). Remarks upon Jumpers or Jumping Frenchmen. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 5, 623–640.Google Scholar
Beard, G. (1880). Experiments with the Jumpers of Maine. Popular Science Monthly 18, 170–178.Google Scholar
Bernstein, A. S. (1987). Orienting response research in schizophrenia; where we have come and where we might go. Schizophrenia Bulletin 13, 623–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birkhimer, L. J., De Vane, C. L. & Muniz, C. E. (1985). Post traumatic stress disorder: characteristics and pharmacological response in the veteran population. Comprehensive Psychiatry 26, 304–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, E. B., Kolb, L. C., Pallmeyer, T. P. & Gerarchi, R. J. (1982). A psychophysiologic study of post traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Psychiatric Quarterly 54, 220–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bleich, A., Siegel, B., Garb, R. & Lerer, B. (1986). Post traumatic stress disorder following combat exposure: clinical features and pharmacological treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry 149, 365–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehnlein, J. K., Kinzie, J. D., Ben, R. & Fleck, J. (1985). One year follow-up study of post-traumatic stress disorder among survivors of Cambodian concentration camps. American Journal of Psychiatry 142, 956–959.Google ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and Communication. Pergamon Press: London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. S., Kalish, H. I. & Farber, I. E. (1951). Conditioned fear as revealed by magnitude of startle response to an auditory stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology 41, 317–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chi, C. C. (1965). The startle effect of amylobarbital sodium on conditioned fear as measured by the potentiated startle response in rats. Psychopharmacologia 7, 115–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiu, T. L., Tong, J. E. & Schmidt, K. (1972). A clinical and survey study of Latah in Sarawak, Malaysia. Psychological Medicine 2, 155–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clifford, H. C. (1898) Studies in Brown Humanity. Grant Richards: London.Google Scholar
Collinder, B. (1949). The Lapps. Greenwood: New York.Google Scholar
Corbett, J. A., Mathews, A. M., Connell, P. H. & Shapiro, D. A. (1969). Tics and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: a follow-up study and critical review. British Journal of Psychiatry 115, 1229–1241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Czaplicka, M. A. (1914). Aboriginal Siberia. Clarendon Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Davidson, J., Swartz, M., Stork, M., Krishnan, R. R. & Hammett, E. (1985). A diagnostic and family study of post traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 142, 90–93.Google Scholar
Davis, M. (1979 a). Morphine and naloxone: effects on conditioned fear as measured with the potentiated startle paradigm. European Journal of Pharmacology 54, 341–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M. (1979 b). Diazepam and flurazepam: effects on conditioned fear as measured with the potentiated startle paradigm. Psychopharmacology 62, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M. (1985). Cocaine: excitatory effects on sensorimotor reactivity measured with acoustic startle. Psychopharmacology 86, 31–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M. & Aghajanian, G. K. (1976). Effects of apomorphine and haloperidol on the acoustic startle response in rats. Psychopharmacology 78, 331–335.Google Scholar
Davis, M. & Astrachan, D. I. (1978). Conditioned fear and startle magnitude: effects of different footshock or backshock intensities used in training. Journal of Experimental Psychology (Animal Behaviour Processes) 4, 95–103.Google ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Redmond, D. E. & Baraban, J. M. (1979). Noradrenergic agonists and antagonists: effects on conditioned fear as measured by the potentiated startle paradigm. Psychopharmacology 65, 111–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Astrachan, D. I. & Kass, E. (1980). Excitatory and inhibitory effects of serotonin on sensori-motor reactivity measured with acoustic startle. Science 209, 521–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, M., Gendelman, D. S., Tischler, M. D. & Gendelman, P. M. (1982). A primary acoustic startle circuit: lesion and stimulation studies. Journal of Neuroscience 2, 791–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Kehne, J. H. & Commissaris, R. L. (1985). Antagonism of apomorphine-enhanced startle by alpha-1 adrenergic antagonists. European Journal of Pharmacology 108, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, M., Commissaris, R. L., Casella, J. V., Young, S., Dember, L. & Harty, T. P. (1986). Differential effects of dopamine agonists on acoustically and electrically elicited startle responses: comparison to effects of strychnine. Brain Research 371, 58–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eckman, P., Friesan, W. V. & Simons, R. C. (1985). Is the startle reaction an emotion? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, 1416–1426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fontaine, R., Chouinard, G. & Annable, L. (1984). Rebound anxiety in anxious patients after abrupt withdrawal of benzodiazepine treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 141, 848–852.Google ScholarPubMed
Frank, J. B., Kosten, T. R., Giller, E. L. & Dan, E. (1988). A randomised clinical trial of phenelzine and imipramine for post traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 145, 1289–1291.Google Scholar
Franks, R., Adler, L., Walds, M., Alpert, J. & Freedman, R. (1983). Neurophysiological studies of sensory gating in mania: comparison with schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 18, 989–1005.Google ScholarPubMed
Gastaut, H. & Villeneuve, A. (1967). The startle disease or hyperekplexia, pathological surprise reaction. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 5, 523–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geertz, H. (1968). Latah in Java: a theoretical paradox. Indonesia 3, 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geyer, M. A. & Braff, D. L. (1982). Habituation of the blink reflex in normals and schizophrenic patients. Psychophysiology 19, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geyer, M. A. & Braff, D. L. (1987). Startle habituation and sensorimotor gating in schizophrenia and related animal models. Schizophrenia Bulletin 13, 643–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilmour, A. (1902). Latah among South African natives. Scottish Medical Journal 10, 18–20.Google Scholar
Gimenez-Roldan, S. & Martin, M. (1980). Startle epilepsy complicating Down's syndrome during childhood. Annals of Neurology 7, 78–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gogan, P. (1970). The startle reflex and orienting reactions in man: a study of their characteristics and habituation. Brain Research 18, 117–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, F. K. (1975). The more or less startling effects of weak prestimuli. Psychophysiology 12, 238–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, F. K., Putman, L. E. & Learitt, L. A. (1975). Lead stimulation effects on human cardiac orienting and blink reflexes. Journal of Experimental Psychology (Human Perception and Performance) 104, 161–169.Google ScholarPubMed
Graham, F. K. & Murray, G. M. (1977). Discordant effects of weak prestimulation on magnitude and latency of the reflex blink. Physiological Psychology 5, 108–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grey Walter, W., Cooper, R., Aldridge, V. J., McCallum, W. C. & Winter, A. L. (1964). Contingent negative variation. An electric sign of sensorimotor association in the human brain. Nature 203, 380–384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, W. A. (1884). Myriachit, a newly described disease of the nervous system and its analogues. New York State Journal of Medicine 39, 191–192.Google Scholar
Harbin, T. J. & Berg, W. K. (1983). The effects of age and prestimulus duration upon reflex inhibition. Psychophysiology 20, 603–610.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harding, A. E. (1984). The Hereditary Ataxias and Related Disorders. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Hardison, J. (1980). Are the jumping Frenchmen of Maine goosey? Journal of the American Medical Association 244, 70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helmsley, D. R. (1975). A two-stage model of attention in schizophrenia. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 14, 81–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgitt, A. C., Lader, H. M. & Fonagy, P. (1985). Clinical management of benzodiazepine dependence. British Medical Journal 291, 688–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hogben, G. L. & Cornfield, R. B. (1981). Treatment of traumatic war neurosis with phenelzine. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 440–445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenner, P., Chadwick, D., Reynolds, E. H. & Marsden, C. D. (1975). Altered 5-HT metabolism with clonazepam, diazepam and diphenylhydantoin. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 27, 707–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jewett, D. L. & Williston, J. S. (1971). Auditory evoked potentials for fields averaged from the scalps of humans. Brain 94, 681–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, W. P. & Leaton, R. N. (1983). Habituation of the acoustic startle response in rats after lesions in the mesencephalic reticular formation or in the inferior colliculus. Behavioural Neuroscience 97, 710–724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kehne, J. H. & Davis, M. (1985). Central noradrenergic involvement in yohimbine excitation of acoustic startle: effects of DSP4-OHDA. Brain Research 330, 31–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kehne, J. H., Cassella, J. V. & Davis, M. (1988). Anxiolytic effects of buspirone and gepirone in the fear-potentiated startle paradigm. Psychopharmacology 94, 8–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, M. F. (1978). Latah: the symbolism of a putative mental disorder. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 2, 209–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, M. G. (1983). Paradox lost: the latah problem revisited. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 171, 159–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kline, N. (1963). Psychiatry in Indonesia. American Journal of Psychiatry 119, 809–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kokkinidis, L. & McNeil, E. P. (1982). Potentiation of d-amphetamine and l-dopa induced acoustic startle activity after long-term exposure to amphetamine. Psychopharmacology 78, 331–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolb, L. C. (1984). The post traumatic stress disorders of combat: a subgroup with a conditioned emotional response. Military Medicine 149, 237–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolb, L. C. (1987). A neuropsychological hypothesis explaining post traumatic stress disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 989–995.Google Scholar
Kolb, L. C., Bums, B. C. & Griffiths, S. (1984). Propranolol and clonidine in treatment of post traumatic stress disorders. In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Psychological and Biological Sequelae (ed. van der Kolk, B. A.), pp. 97–105. American Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Kosten, T. R., Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Ostreff, R. & Harkness, L. (1987). Sustained urinary norepinephrine elevation in post traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 12, 13–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koven, L. J. & Lamb, S. S. (1954). The athetoid syndrome in cerebral palsy. Pediatrics 14, 181–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krystal, I. T. (1978). Trauma and effects. Psychoanalytic Studies of Childhood 33, 81–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kudler, H., Davidson, J., Meador, K., Lipper, S. & Ely, T. (1987). The dexamethasone suppression test and post traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1068–1071.Google Scholar
Kunkle, E. C. (1967). The Jumpers of Maine: a reappraisal. Archives of Internal Medicine 119, 355–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurczynski, T. W. (1983). Hyperekplexia. Archives of Neurology 40, 246–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landis, C. & Hunt, W. A. (1939). The Startle Pattern. Farrar and Rinehart Inc: New York.Google Scholar
Leaton, R. N. & Supple, W. F. (1986). Cerebellar vermis: essential for long-term habituation of the acoustic startle response. Science 232, 513–515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerer, B., Ebstein, R. P., Shestatsky, M., Shemesh, Z. & Greenberg, D. (1987). Cyclic-AMP signal transduction in post traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1324–1327.Google Scholar
Lhermitte, F. (1983). Utilisation behaviour and its relation to lesions of the frontal lobes. Brain 106, 237–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lhermitte, F., Pillon, B. & Serdaru, M. (1986). Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part 1: imitation and utilisation behaviour: a neurophysiological study of 75 patients. Annals of Neurology 19, 326–334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsley, D. B. (1951). Emotion. In Handbook of Experimental Psychology (ed. Stevens, S. S.), pp. 437–516. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
McGhie, A. & Chapman, J. (1961). Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia. British Journal of Medical Psychology 34, 103–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mallory, P. F., Fairbank, J. A. & Keane, T. M. (1983). Validation of a multimethod assessment of post traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 51, 488–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T., Ostroff, R. & Pod, L. (1986). Urinary free-cortisol levels on post traumatic stress disorder patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 174, 145–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, W. B. (1982). Spongiform virus encephalopathy. In Recent Advances in Clinical Neurology, vol. 3, (ed. Matthews, W. B. and Glaser, G. H.), pp. 229–238. Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Merlis, J. K. (1974). Reflex epilepsy. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology 15 The Epilepsies (ed. Magnus, O. and Lorenz de Haes, A. M.), North-Holland Publishing: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Murphy, H. B. (1976). Notes for a theory on ‘latah’. In Culture-Bound Syndromes, Ethnopsychiatry and Alternative Therapies, 4 (ed. Lebra, I. P.), pp. 3–21. University Press of Hawaii: Honolulu.Google Scholar
Murphy, H. B. M. (1983). Commentary on The resolution of the latah paradox. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 171, 176–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, C. S. (1940). Shell Shock in France, 1914–18. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
Naatanen, R. (1982). Processing negativity: an evoked-potential reflection of selective attention. Psychological Bulletin 92, 605–640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nakamura, M., Kanai, H. & Miyamoto, (1975). A case of Sturge-Weber syndrome with startle epilepsy. No To Shinkei 27, 325–331.Google Scholar
O'Brien, H. (1883). Latah. Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society of Singapore 11, 143–153.Google Scholar
Oltmanns, T. F. (1978). Selective attention in schizophrenic and manic psychoses: the effect of distraction on information processing. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 87, 212–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, B. D., Giller, E. L. & Southwick, S. M. (1987). Altered platelet alpha-2 adrenergic binding sites in post traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1511–1512.Google Scholar
Petursson, H., Gudjonsson, G. & Lader, M. H. (1983). Psychometric performance during withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine treatment. Psychopharmacology 18, 345–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petursson, H. & Lader, M. (1983). Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome. In New Psychiatric Syndromes (ed. Akhtar, S.) pp. 815–816. Jason Aronson: New York.Google Scholar
Pritchard, W. S. (1981). Psychophysiology of P300. Psychological Bulletin 89, 506–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rado, S. (1942). Pathodynamics and treatment of traumatic war neurosis (traumatophobia). Psychosomatic Medicine 42, 362–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, D. (1970). Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behavior. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
Saenz-Lope, E., Herranz, F. J., Marsden, J. C. & Chacon-Pena, J. R. (1984 a). Hyperekplexia: a syndrome of pathological startle responses. Annals of Neurology 15, 36–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saenz-Lope, E., Herranz, F. J., & Marsden, J. C. (1984 b). Startle epilepsy: a clinical study. Annals of Neurology 16, 78–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sainte-Hilaire, M.-H., Sainte-Hilaire, J.-M. & Granger, L. (1986). Jumping Frenchmen of Maine. Neurology 36, 1269–1271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salkind, M. (1982). Topics in Drug Therapy. Open University: Milton Keynes.Google Scholar
Sargant, W. & Slater, E. (1940). Acute war neuroses. Lancet ii, 1–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Depression. In Helplessness: On Depression, Development and Death, pp. 75–106. Freeman: San Francisco.Google Scholar
Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E. S., Young, E. G. & Feinberg, T. E. (1988). Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome, 2nd edn.Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Shirogoroff, M. (1935). The Psychomental Complex of the Tungus. Kegan Paul: London.Google Scholar
Simons, R. C. (1980). The resolution of the Latah paradox. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 168, 195–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sokolov, Y. N. (1963). Perception and the Conditioned Reflex (transl. by Waydenfeld, S. W.). Pergamon Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Stevens, H. (1965). Jumping Frenchmen of Maine. Archives of Neurology 12, 311–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suhren, O., Bruyn, G. W. & Tuynman, J. A. (1966). Hyperekplexia. A hereditary startle syndrome. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 3, 577–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, S., Braren, M. & Zubin, J. (1965). Evoked-potential correlates of stimulus uncertainty. Science 150, 1187–1188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svensson, T. H. (1987). Peripheral autonomic regulations of locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurones in the brain: putative implications for psychiatry and psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacology 92, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swerdlow, N. R., Braff, D. L., Geyer, M. A. & Koob, G. F. (1986). Central dopamine hyperactivity in rats mimics abnormal acoustic startle response in schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry 21, 23–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Talairach, J. & Bancaud, J. (1974). Stereotaxic exploration and therapy in epilepsy. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology, vol. 15, (ed. Magnus, O. and Lorenz de Haas, A. M.), pp. 758–782. North-Holland Publishing: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Thorne, F. C. (1944). Startle neurosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 101, 105–109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomkins, S. S. (1962). Affect, Imagery, Consciousness, vol. 1. The Positive Affects. Springer: New York.Google Scholar
Tourette, G.Gilles de la, , (1984). Jumping, Latah, Myriachit. Archives of Neurology 8, 68–84.Google Scholar
Tourette, G.Gilles de la, , (1885). Étude sur une affection nerveuse caractérisée par 1'incoordination motrice accompagnée d'écholalie et de coprolalie. Archives of Neurology 9, 19–42; 158–200.Google Scholar
Twitchell, T. E. (1959). On the motor deficit in congenital bilateral athetosis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 129, 105–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrer, P., Owen, R. & Dawling, S. (1983). Gradual withdrawal of diazepam after long-term therapy. Lancet i, 1402–1406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uchimura, Y. (1935). Lancet i, 1272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Kolk, B., Greenberg, M., Boyd, H. & Krystal, J. (1985). Inescapable shock, neurotransmitters and addiction to trauma: toward a psychobiology of post traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 20, 314–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Venables, P. H. (1964). Input dysfunction in schizophrenia. In Contributions to the Psychotherapy of Schizophrenia (ed. Maher, B. A.), pp. 1–56. Academic Press: New York.Google Scholar
Watson, I. P. B., Hoffman, L. & Wilson, G. V. (1988). The neuropsychiatry of post traumatic stress disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 152, 164–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, D. E., Hallett, M. & Wess, M. M. (1986). Audiogenic startle reflex of man and its relationship to startle syndromes. Brain 109, 561–573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodworth, R. S. & Schlosberg, H. (1954). Experimental Psychology. Henry Holt: New York.Google Scholar
Woolfolk, R. L. & Grady, D. A. (1988). Combat-related post traumatic stress disorder. Patterns of symptomatology in help-seeking Vietnam veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 176, 107–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yap, P. M. (1952). The Latah reaction: its psychodynamics and nosological position. Journal of Mental Science 98, 515–564.CrossRefGoogle Scholar