Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T19:27:22.344Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects, and possible causes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 February 2010

Camilla Persson Benbow
Camilla Persson Benbow
Affiliation:
Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY), Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011–3180
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Several hundred thousand intellectually talented 12-to 13-year-olds have been tested nationwide over the past 16 years with the mathematics and verbal sections of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Although no sex differences in verbal ability have been found, there have been consistent sex differences favoring males in mathematical reasoning ability, as measured by the mathematics section of the SAT (SAT-M). These differences are most pronounced at the highest levels of mathematical reasoning, they are stable over time, and they are observed in other countries as well. The sex difference in mathematical reasoning ability can predict subsequent sex differences in achievement in mathematics and science and is therefore of practical importance. To date a primarily environmental explanation for the difference in ability has not received support from the numerous studies conducted over many years by the staff of Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) and others. We have studied some of the classical environmental hypotheses: attitudes toward mathematics, perceived usefulness of mathematics, confidence, expectations/ encouragement from parents and others, sex-typing, and differential course-taking. In addition, several physiological correlates of extremely high mathematical reasoning ability have been identified (left-handedness, allergies, myopia, and perhaps bilateral representation of cognitive functions and prenatal hormonal exposure). It is therefore proposed that the sex difference in SAT-M scores among intellectually talented students, which may be related to greater male variability, results from both environmental and biological factors.

Keywords

environmentgiftednessheredityhormonesintelligencelateralitymathematical abilitynature/nurturesex differencesspatial relations
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 11 , Issue 2 , June 1988 , pp. 169 - 183
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1988

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abramson, J. & Franklin, B. (1986) Where they are now. The story of the women of Harvard Law 1974. Doubleday.Google Scholar
Adelson, J. (1985) What we don't know about sex differences. New Perspectives (Spring): 9–13.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. R. Jr, (1972) Research on attitudes toward mathematics. Arithmetic Teacher 19:229–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aiken, L. R. Jr, & Dreger, R. M. (1961) The effect of attitudes on performance in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology 52:19–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1982) Psychological testing. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Anastasi, A. (1985) Reciprocal relations between cognitive and affective development with implications for sex differences. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1984: Psychology and gender, ed. Sonderegger, T. B., University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, D. K., Rhees, R. W. & Fleming, D. E. (1985) Effects of stress on differentiation of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area (SDN-POA) of the rat brain. Brain Research 332:113–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angoff, W., ed. (1971) The College Board Admissions Testing Program. Princeton, N.J.: College Entrance Examination Board.Google Scholar
Annett, M. & Kilshaw, D. (1982) Mathematical ability and lateral asymmetry. Cortex 18:547–568.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arbeiter, S. (1985) Profiles, college-bound seniors, 1984. Princeton, N.J.: College Entrance Examination Board.Google Scholar
Arjmand, O., Benbow, C.P. & Lorenz, F. (in preparation) Attitude and parental encouragement patterns among intellectually talened males and females.Google Scholar
Armstrong, J. M. (1981) Achievement and participation of women in mathematics: Results of two national surveys. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 12:356–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, J. M. (1985) A national assessment of particiapation and achievement of women in mathematics. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Arnold, A. P. & Gorski, R. A. (1984) Gonadal steroid induction of structural sex differences in the central nervous system. Annual Reviews of Neuroscience 7:413–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashton, G. C. (1983) Myopia and cognitive ability. Behavior Genetics 13:526.Google Scholar
Ashton, G. C. (1986) Blood polymorphisms and cognitive abilities. Behavior Genetics 16:517–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Backman, M. E. (1972) Patterns of mental abilities: Ethnic, socioeconomic, and sex differences. American Educational Research Journal 9:1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, F. (1969) Mental prodigies. Greenwod.Google Scholar
Bartsocas, C. S. & Kastrantas, A. D. (1981) X-linked form of myopia. Human Hereditas 31:199–200.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basu, S. K. & Jindal, A. (1983) Genetic aspects of myopia among the Shia Muslim Dawoodi Bohras of Udaipur, Rajsthan. Human Hereditas 33:163–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Battle, E. S. (1966) Motivational determinants of academic competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 4:634–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beatty, W. W. (1979) Gonadal hormones and sex differences in nonreproductive behaviors in rodents: Organizational and activational influences. Hormones and Behavior 12:112–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Becker, B. J. (1978) The relationship of spatial ability to sex differences in the performance of mathematically precocious youths on the mathematical sections of the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Master's thesis. The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Becker, B. J. & Hedges, L. V. (1984) Meta-analysis of cognitive gender differences: A comment on an analysis by Rosenthal and Rubin. Journal of Educational Psychology 76:587–587.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, A. D. & Variend, S. (1985) Failure to demonstrate sexual dimorphism of the corpus callosum in childhood. Journal of Anatomy 143:143–147.Google ScholarPubMed
Bern, S. L. (1974) The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42:155–162.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1978) Sex-related differences in spatial ability. Master's thesis, The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1981) Development of superior mathematical ability during adolescence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1983) Adolescence of the mathematically precocious: A five-year longitudinal study. In: Academic precocity: Aspects of its development, ed. Benbow, C. P. & Stanley, J. C.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1986a) Home environments and toy preferences of extremely precocious students. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1986b) Physiological correlates of extreme intellectual precocity. Neuropsychologia 24:719–725.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benbow, C. P. (1986c) Book review of Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. In: Child Development Abstracts and Bibliography 60:61.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1987a) Factors associated with high achievement in mathematics and science among mathematically talented students: A longitudinal study. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D. C.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1987b) Possible biological correlates of precocious mathematical reasoning ability. Trends in Neuroscience 10:17–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1988) Neuropsychological perspectives on mathematical talent. In: The exceptional brain: Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities, ed. Obler, L. K. & Fein, D.. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (in preparation) Factors associated with high achievement in mathematics and science among mathematically talented students: A longitudinal study.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. & Benbow, R. M. (1984) Biological correlates of high mathematical reasoning ability. In: Sex differences in the brain – The relation between structure and function. Progress in Brain Research, vol. 61, ed. DeVries, G. J., DeBruin, J. P. C., Uylings, H. B. M. & Corner, M. A.. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1987) Extreme mathematical talent: A hormonally induced ability? In: Duality and unity of the brain (Vol. 47 of Wenner-Gren Center international symposium series), ed. Ottoson, D.. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P., Hoff, E. & O'Boyle, M. (in preparation) Difference in brain organization between extremely intellectually talented students and average-ability students.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P. & Minor, L. L. (1986) Mathematically talented students and achievement in the high school sciences. American Educational Research Journal 23:425–436.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. & Stanley, J. C. (1980) Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact? Science 210:1262–1264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benbow, C. P. (1981) Mathematical ability: Is sex a factor? (Letter) Science 212:118–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbow, C. P. (1982a) Consequences in high school and college of sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: A longitudinal perspective. American Educational Research Journal 19:598–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donlon, T. F. (1982b) Intellectually talented boys and girls: Educational profiles. Gifted Child Quarterly 26:82–88.Google Scholar
Donlon, T. F. (1983a) Differential course taking hypothesis revisited. (A commentary) American Educational Research Journal 20:469–73.Google Scholar
Donlon, T. F. (1983b) Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts. Science 222:1029–1031.Google Scholar
Donlon, T. F. (1984) Gender and the science major. In: Advances in motivation and achivement, vol. 2, ed. Steinkamp, M. W. & Maehr, M. L.. JAI Press.Google Scholar
Benbow, C. P., Stanley, J. C., Zonderman, A. B. & Kirk, M. K. (1983) Structure of intelligence of intellectually precocious children and of their parents. Intelligence 7:129–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berrebi, A. S., Fitch, R. H., Ralphe, D. L., Denenberg, J. O., Friedrich, V. L. Jr, & Denenberg, V. H. (1988) Corpus callosum: Region-specific effects of sex, early experience, and age. Brain Research 438:216–224CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Besag, F. D. (1987) Gender, race, and ethnicity and math avoidance. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Bieri, J., Bradburn, W. & Gallinsky, M. (1958) Sex differences in perceptive behavior. Journal of Personality 26:1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Block, N. J. & Dworkin, G. (1974) IQ: Heritability and inequality, Part 1. Philosophy and Public Affairs 3:331–408.Google Scholar
Bloom, B. S., ed. (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: The cognitive domain. David McKay.Google Scholar
Boli, J., Allen, M. L. & Payne, A. (1985) High-ability women and men in undergraduate mathematics and chemistry courses. American Educational Research Journal 22:605–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boller, F. & Grafman, J. (1985) Acalculia. In: Handbook of clinical neurology. Vol. 45: Clinical neuropsychology, ed. Vinken, P. J., Bruyn, G. W. & Klawans, H. L.. Elsevier.Google Scholar
Bornstein, R. A. (1984) Unilateral lesions and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised: No sex differences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 52:604–608.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boswell, S. L. (1985) The influence of sex-role stereotyping on women's attitudes and achievement in mathematics. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bradshaw, J. L. & Nettleton, N. C. (1981) The nature of hemispheric specialization in man. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4:51–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, J. L. & Nettleton, N. C. (1983) Human cerebral asymmetry. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Brody, L. E. (1985) The effects of an intensive summer program on the SAT scores of gifted seventh graders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Broverman, D. M., Broverman, I. K., Vogel, W., Palmer, R. D. & Klaiber, E. L. (1964) The automatization cognitive style and physical development. Child Development 35:1343–1359.Google ScholarPubMed
Brush, L. R. (1978) A validation study of the mathematics anxiety rating scale (MARS). Educational and Psychological Measurement 38:485–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brush, L. R. (1980) Encouraging girls in mathematics: The problem and the solution. Abt Books.Google Scholar
Bryden, M. P. (1986) Dichotic listening performance, cognitive ability, and cerebral organization. Canadian Journal of Psychology 40:445–456.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryden, M. P., Hécaen, H. & Deagostini, M. (1983) Patterns of cerebral organization. Brain and Language 20:249–262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burnett, S. A. (1986) Sex-related differences in spatial ability: Are they trivial? American Psychologist 41:1012–1013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnett, S. A., Lane, D. M. & Draft, L. M. (1979) Spatial visualiżation and sex differences in quantitative ability. Intelligence 3:345–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnett, S. A., Lane, D. M. & Draft, L. M. (1982) Spatial ability and handedness. Intelligence 6:57–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnett, S. A. & Peters, D. (1985) Spatial ability and visual memory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association. San Antonio, Texas.Google Scholar
Byne, W., Bleier, R. & Houston, L. (1986) Individual, age and sex-related differences in human corpus callosum: A study using magnetic resonance imaging. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 12:719.Google Scholar
Caplan, P. J., Macpherson, G. M. & Tobin, P. (1985) Do sex-related differences in spatial abilities exist? American Psychologist 40:786–789.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caramazza, A., Gordon, J., Zuriff, G. E. & Deluca, D. (1976) Right-hemispheric damage and verbal problem solving behavior. Brain and Language 3:41–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, G. L. (1958) Sex differences in problem-solving performance as a function of attitude differences. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 56:256–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Center for the Advancement of Academically Talented Youth (1983) The CTY 1983 Talent Search Report. Baltimore: CTY.Google Scholar
Center for the Advancement of Academically Talented Youth (1984) The CTY 1984 Talent Search Report. Baltimore: CTY.Google Scholar
Center for the Advancement of Academically Talented Youth (1985) The CTY 1985 Talent Search Report. Baltimore: CTY.Google Scholar
Center for the Advancement of Academically Talented Youth (1986) The CTY 1986 Talent Search Report. Baltimore: CTY.Google Scholar
Chi, J. G., Dooling, D. C. & Gilles, F. H. (1977) Gyral development of the human brain. Annals of Neurology 1:86–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chi, M. T. H. (1978) Knowledge structures and memory development. In: Children's thinking: What develops? ed. Siegler, R. S.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M., eds. (1985) Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chipman, S. F. & Thomas, V. G. (1985) Women's participation in mathematics: Outlining the problem. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Chipman, S. F. & Thomas, V. G. (in press) The participation of women and minorities in mathematical, scientific, and technical fields. Review of Research in Education, vol. 14.Google Scholar
Chipman, S. F. & Wilson, D. M. (1985) Understanding mathematics course enrollment and mathematics achievement: A synthesis of the research. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Clark, A. S., Maclusky, N. J. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1986) Steroid hormone binding and metabolism in the cerebral cortex and limbic structures of the developing rhesus monkey brain. Society for Neuroscience 12:1217 (Abstract).Google Scholar
Clark, R. W. (1971) Einstein: The life and times. World Publishing.Google Scholar
Cockroft, W. H. (1980) Mathematics counts: Report of the committee of inquiry into teaching of mathematics. Her Majesty's Stationery Office.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1977) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Cohn, S. J. (1977) Cognitive characteristics of the top-scoring participants in SMPY's 1976 Talent Search. Gifted Child Quarterly 22:416–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohn, S. J., Cohn, C. M. G. & Jensen, A. R. (in press) Speed of information processing and myopia in academically gifted youths and their siblings. Intelligence.Google Scholar
College Board (1985) College-bound seniors, 1984–1982. Princeton, N. J.: College Board.Google Scholar
Connor, J. M. & Serbin, L. A. (1985) Visual-spatial skill: Is it important for mathematics? Can it be taught? In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M., Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cooper, H. M. (1984) The integrative research review: A systematic approach. Sage.Google Scholar
Coren, S., Searleman, A. & Porac, C. (1986) Rate of physical maturation and handedness. Developmental Neuropsychology 2:17–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'amico, C. & Kimura, D. (1987) Different subgroups of adextrals based on speech lateralization and ability patterns. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 9:278 (Abstract).Google Scholar
Datta, L. (1985) Foreword. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M., Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Davis, J. A. (1965) Undergraduate career decisions: Correlates of academic choice. NORC Monograph in Social Research, No. 2.Google Scholar
Dawson, J. L. M. B. (1977) An anthropological perspective on the evolution and lateralization of the brain. In: Evolution and lateralization of the brain, ed. Dimond, S. J. & Blizard, D. A.. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 299.Google ScholarPubMed
Deaux, K. (1985) Sex and gender. Annual Review of Psychology 36:49–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Lacoste-Utamsing, C. & Holloway, R. L. (1982) Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum. Science 216:1431–1432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Demeter, S., Ringo, J. & Doty, R. W. (1985) Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum? Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 11:868.Google Scholar
DeRenzi, E. (1982) Disorders of space exploration and cognition. Wiley.Google Scholar
Deutsch, D. (1980) Handedness and memory for tonal pitch. In: Neuropsychology of left-handedness, ed. Herron, J.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Devries, G. J., Debruin, J. P. C., Uylings, H. B. M. & Corner, M. A., eds. (1984) Sex differences in the brain – the relation between structure and function. Progress in brain research, vol. 26. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Devries, G. J., Debruin, J. P. C., Uylings, H. B. M. & Corner, M. A., (1984a) Sex differences in the brain. Progress in brain research, vol. 61. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, M. C., Dowling, G. A. & Johnson, R. E. (1981) Morphologic cerebral cortical asymmetry in male and female rats. Experimental Neurology 71:261–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, M. C., Murphy, G. M. Jr, Akiyama, K. & Johnson, R. E. (1982) Morphological hippocampal asymmetry in male and female rats. Experimental Neurology 76:553–566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diamond, S. J. & Beaumont, J. G. (1974) Hemisphere function in the human brain. Paul Elek.Google Scholar
Dix, L. (1987) Women: Their underrepresentation and career differentials in science and engineering. National Research Council.Google Scholar
Donlon, T. F. (1973) Content factors in sex differences in test questions. Educational Testing Service Research Monograph.Google Scholar
Donlon, T. F., Ekstrom, R. B. & Lockheed, M. (1976) Comparing the sexes on achievement test items of varying content. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Donovan, B. T. & Van Der Werff Ten Bosch, J. J. (1965) Physiology of puberty. Arnold.Google Scholar
Dornbusch, S. (1974) To try or not to try. Stanford Magazine 2:50–54.Google Scholar
Dougherty, K., Herbert, M., Edenhart-Pepe, M. & Small, A. (1980) Sex-related differences in mathematics, grades 2–5. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Dreger, R. M. & Aiken, L. R. Jr, (1957) The identification of number anxiety in a college population. Journal of Educational Psychology 48:344–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunphy, E. B. (1970) The biology of myopia. New England Journal of Medicine 283:796–800.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunteman, G. H., Wisenbaker, J. & Taylor, M. E. (1979) Race and sex differences in college science program participation. Report submitted to the National Science Foundation under contract NO. SED77–18728.Google Scholar
Dutton, W. H. (1956) Attitudes of junior high school pupils toward arithmetic. School Review 64:18–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dutton, W. H. & Blum, M. P. (1968) The measurement of attitudes toward arithmetic with a Likert-type test. Elementary School Journal 68:259–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1986) Motivational problems affecting learning. American Psychologist 41:1040–1048.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S., Davidson, W., Nelson, S. & Enna, B. (1978) Sex differences in learned helplessness; II. The contingencies of evaluative feedback in the classroom; and III. An experimental analysis. Developmental Psychology 14:268–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dwyer, C. A. (1974) Influence of children's sex-role standards on reading and arithmetic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology 66:811–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eaton, W. D. & Enns, L. R. (1986) Sex differences in human activity level. Psychological Bulletin 100:19–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eccles, J. (1985) Sex differences in achievement patterns. In: Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1984: Psychology and gender, ed. Sonderegger, T. B., University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Eccles, J., Adler, T. & Meece, J. (1984) Sex differences in achievement: A test of alternate theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46:26–43.Google Scholar
Ehrhardt, A. A. & Baker, S. W. (1974) Fetal androgens, human CNS differentiation, and behavior sex differences. In: Sex differences in behavior, ed. Friedman, R. C., Richart, R. M. & Van de Wiele, R. L.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, L. (1986) Mindlessness and brainlessness in psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry 148:497–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, T. H. N. (1986) Restriction fragment length polymorphism markers in relation to quantitative characters. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 72:1–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ernest, J. (1976) Mathematics and sex. American Mathematical Monthly 83:595–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ethington, C. A. & Wolfle, L. M. (1984) Sex differences in a causal model of mathematics achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 15:361–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ethington, C. A. & Wolfle, L. M. (1986) A structural model of mathematics achievement for men and women. American Educational Research Journal 23:65–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fairweather, H. (1976) Sex differences in cognition. Cognition 4:231–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farmer, H. S. (1987) A multivariate model for explaining gender differences in career and achievement motivation. Educational Researcher 16(2):5–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. (1974) Mathematics learning and the sexes: A review. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 5:126–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. (1976) Influences of selected cognitive, affective, and educational variables on sex-related differences in mathematics learning. Prepared for National Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Fennema, E. & Sherman, J. (1977) Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement, spatial visualization, and sociocultural factors. American Educational Research Journal 14:51–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. (1978) Sex-related differences in mathematics achievement and related factors: A further study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 9:189–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fennema, E. & Tartre, L. A. (1985) The use of spatial visualization in mathematics by girls and boys. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 16:184–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferry, G. (1982) How women figure in science. New Scientist 94:10–13.Google Scholar
Fischbein, S. (1981) Heredity-environment influences of growth and development during adolescence. In: Twin research 3- Intelligence, personality, and development, ed. Gedda, L. et al. Alan, R. Liss.Google Scholar
Fitch, R. H., Berrebi, A. S. & Denenberg, V. H. (1987) Corpus callosum: Masculinized via perinatal testosterone. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 13:688.Google Scholar
Flanagan, J. C., Dailey, J. T., Shaycoft, M. F., Gorham, W. A., Orr, D. B. & Goldberg, I. (1962) Design for a study of American youth. Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Fleming, D. E., Anderson, R. H., Rhees, R. W., Kinghorn, E. & Bakaitis, J. (1986) Effects of prenatal stress on sexually dimorphic asymmetries in the cerebral cortex of the male rat. Brain Research Bulletin 16:395–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, L. H. (1975) Career interests and mathematical acceleration for girls. Paper presented at annual meeting of American Psychological Association, Chicago.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. (1976) Sex differences in mathematical precocity: Bridging the gap. In: Intellectual talent: Research and development, ed. Keating, D. P.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. (1977) The effects of sex-role socialization on mathematics participation and achievement. In: Women and mathematics: Research perspectives for change, ed. Schoemaker, J.. National Institute of Education Papers in Education and Work, No. 8. Washington, D.C.: Education and Work Group, The National Institute of Education, United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. (1982) Sex differences among the mathematically gifted. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H., Benbow, C. P. & Perkins, S. (1983) An accelerated mathematics program for girls: A longitudinal evaluation. In: Academic precocity: Aspects of its development, ed. Benbow, C. P. & Stanley, J. C.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H., Brody, L. & Tobin, D. (1979) Women and mathematics: The impact of early intervention upon course-taking and attitudes in high school. Final report to the National Institute of Education, Grant No. NIE 6–77–0062.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. eds. (1980) Women and the mathematical mystique. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. (1982) The study of social processes that inhibit or enhance the development of competence and interest in mathematics among highly able young women. Report to the National Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. (1985) The impact of early intervention programs upon course-taking and attitudes in high school. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Fox, L. H. & Richmond, L. J. (1979) Gifted females: Are we meeting their counseling needs? Personnel and Guidance Journal 57:256–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, L. H., Tobin, D. & Brody, L. (1979) Sex-role socialization and achievement in mathematics. In: Sex-related differences in cognitive functioning: Developmental issues, ed. Wittig, M. & Petersen, A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Fraser, E. J. P. & Cormack, S. (in press) Women and mathematics: A different picture. Teaching mathematics and its applications.Google Scholar
Freed, N. H. (1983) Forseeable equivalent math skill of men and women. Psychological Reports 52:334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freter, S. H., Mikolowski, A., Fitch, R. H., Berrebi, A. S., Yutzey, D. A. & Dennenberg, V. H. (1987) Handling stimulation in infancy and gender: Effects upon maze learning and behavioral asymmetry. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 13.Google Scholar
Friedman, A. & Poison, M. C. (1981) Hemispheres as independent resource systems: Limited-capacity processing and cerebral specialization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 7:1031–1058.Google ScholarPubMed
Frieze, I., Whiteley, B., Hanusa, B. & McHugh, M. (1982) Assessing the theoretical models for sex differences in causal attributions for achievement and failure. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 8:333–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garai, J. E. & Scheinfeld, A. (1968) Sex differences in mental and behavioral traits. Genetic Psychology Monographs 77:169–129.Google Scholar
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of mind. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gardner, H., Brownell, H. H., Wapner, W. & Michelow, D. (1983) Missing the point: The role of the right hemisphere in the processing of complex linguistic materials. In: Cognitive processing in the right hemisphere, ed. Perecman, E., Academic Press.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, A. S. (1982) Genetic and environmental influences on the development of Piagetían logico-mathematical concepts and other specific cognitive abilities: A twin study. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Gemellologiae 31:10–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garvey, C. (1977) Play. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1982) Why Orton was right. Annals of Dyslexia 32:13–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geschwind, N. & Behan, P. (1982) Left-handedness: Association with immune disease, migraine, and developmental learning disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 79:5097–5100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geschwind, N. & Behan, P. (1984) Laterality, hormones, and immunity. In: Cerebral dominance: The biological foundations, ed. Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A.. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. & Galaburda, A. M. (1986) Cerebral lateralization. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (1982) In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Ginsburg, H. P. (1983) (Ed.) The development of mathematical thinking. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Glass, G. V., McGaw, B. & Smith, M. L. (1981) Meta-analysis in social research. Sage.Google Scholar
Glennon, V. J. & Gallahan, L. G. (1968) A guide to current research: Elementary school mathematics. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervisional Curriculum Development.Google Scholar
Goldman, P. S. & Brown, R. (1975) The influence of neonatai androgen on the development of cortical function in the rhesus monkey. Society for Neuroscience 1:494 (Abstract).Google Scholar
Goldman, P. S., Crawford, H. T., Stokes, L. P., Galkin, T. W. & Rosvold, H. E. (1974) Sex-dependent behavioral effects of cerebral cortical lesions in the developing rhesus monkey. Science 186:540–542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman, P. S. & Rakic, P. T. (1979) Impact of the outside world upon the developing primate brain. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 43:20–28.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1987) Circuitry of the primate prefrontal cortex and the regulation of behavior by representational memory. In: Handbook of physiology, ed. Mountcastle, V. & Plum, F., and American Physiological Society 5:373–417.Google Scholar
Goleman, D. (1987) Girls and math: Is biology really destiny? New York Times Education Supplement: 42–43.Google Scholar
Gordon, H. W. & Galatzer, A. (1980) Cerebral organization in patients with gonadal dysgenesis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 5:235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorski, R. A., Gordon, J. H., Shyrne, J. E. & Southam, A. M. (1978) Evidence for a morphological sex difference within the medial preoptic area of the rat brain. Brain Research 148:333–346.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goy, R. W. & McEwen, B. S. (1981) Sexual differentiation of the brain. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Graf, G. & Ruddell, J. (1972) Sex differences in problem-solving as a function of problem content. Journal of Educational Research 65(10):451–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, P. R. (1980) Mechanical considerations in myopia: Relative effects of accommodation, convergence, intraocular pressure, and the extraocular muscles. American Journal of Optometry and Physiological Optics 57:902–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hahn, W. K. (1987) Cerebral lateralization of function: From infancy through childhood. Psychological Bulletin 101:376–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, K. R. L. & Devore, I. (1965) Baboon social behavior. In: Primate behavior: Field studies of monkeys and apes, ed. DeVore, I., Holt, Rinehart & Winston, .Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (1986a) Sex differences in cognitive abilities. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Halpern, D. F. (1986b) A different answer to the question “Do sex differences in spatial abilities exist?” American Psychologist 41:1014–1015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hampson, E. & Kimura, D. (in press) Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptuo-spatial skills. Behavioral Neuroscience.Google Scholar
Hardvek, C. (1977) A model of individual differences in hemispheric functioning. In: Studies in neurolinguistics, vol. 3, ed. Whitaker, H. & Whitaker, H. A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hardyek, C., Petrinovich, L. F. & Goldman, R. F. (1976) Left-handedness and cognitive deficit. Cortex 12:266–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, L. J. (1978) Sex differences in spatial ability: Possible environmental, genetic, and neurological factors. In: Asymmetrical function of the brain, ed. Kinsbourne, M.. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, L. J. (1980) Left-handedness: Early theories, facts, and fancies. In: Neuropsychology of left-handedness, ed. Herron, J.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Harris, M. J. & Rosenthal, R. (1985) Mediation of interpersonal expectancy effects: Thirty-one meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin 97:363–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harshman, R. A. & Hampson, E. (1987) Normal variation in human brain organization: Relation to handedness, sex and cognitive abilities. In: Duality and unity of the brain (vol. 47 of Wenner-Gren Center International Symposium Series), ed. Ottoson, D.. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Harshman, R. A., Hampson, E. & Berenbaum, S. A. (1983) Individual differences in cognitive abilities and brain organization. Part I: Sex and handedness differences in ability. Canadian Journal of Psychology 37:144–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haven, E. W. (1971) Factors associated with the selection of advanced academic mathematics courses by girls in high school. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania. Dissertation Abstracts International 32:1747A.Google Scholar
Heath, A. C., Berg, K., Eaves, L. J., Solast, M., Corey, L. A., Sundet, J., Magnus, P. & Nance, W. E. (1985) Education policy and the heritability of educational attainment. Nature 314:734–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. (1985) Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Heller, K. A. & Parsons, J. E. (1981) Sex differences in teachers' evaluative feedback and students' expectancies for success in mathematics. Child Development 52:1015–1019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herring, S. & Reitan, R. M. (1986) Sex similarities in verbal and performance IQ deficits following unilateral cerebral lesions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 54:537–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hier, D. B. & Crowley, W. F. Jr, (1982) Spatial ability in androgen deficient men. New England Journal of Medicine 306:1201–1205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilton, T. L., Beaton, A. E. & Bower, C. P. (1971) Stability and instability in academic growth – a compilation of longitudinal data. Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Hilton, T. L. & Berglund, G. W. (1974) Sex differences in mathematics achievement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Research 67:231–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hines, M. (1982) Prenatal gonadal hormones and sex differences in human behavior. Psychological Bulletin 92:56–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hines, M. & Gorski, R. A. (1985) Hormonal influences on the development of neural asymmetries. In: The dual brain, ed. Benson, D. F. & Zaidel, E.. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hines, M. & Shipley, C. (1984) Prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) and the development of sexually dimorphic cognitive abilities and cerebral lateralization. Developmental Psychology 20:81–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holden, C. (1987) Female math anxiety on the wane. Science 236:600–601.Google ScholarPubMed
Holloway, R. L. & De Lacoste, M. C. (1986) Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum: An extension and replication study. Human Neurobiology 5:87–91.Google ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, R., Henifin, M. S. & Fried, B. (1982) Biological woman: The convenient myth. Schenkman.Google Scholar
Humphreys, L. G., Davey, T. C. & Kashima, E. (1986) Experimental measures of cognitive privilege/deprivation and some of their correlates. Intelligence 10:355–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hungerman, A. D. (1967) Achievement and attitude of sixth-grade pupils in conventional and contemporary mathematics programs. Arithmetic Teacher 14:30–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L. & Jackson, G. B. (1982) Meta-analysis. Sage.Google Scholar
Husén, T. (1959). Psychological twin research 1: A methodological study. Almquist & Wiskells.Google Scholar
Husén, T. (1960) Abilities of twins. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 1:125–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Husén, T. ed. (1967) International study of achievement in mathematics, vol. 2. Wiley.Google Scholar
Hyde, J. S. (1981) How large are cognitive gender differences? A meta-analysis using w2 and d. American Psychologist 36:892–901.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, R. (1980) The Scholastic Aptitude Test: A reply to Slack and Porter's “Critical Appraisal.” Harvard Educational Review 50:282–391.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1969) How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement? Harvard Educational Review Reprint Series No. 2:1–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, M. M. (1963) Sex-role learning in the nuclear family. Child Development 34:319–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, N. L. & Kotz, S. (1970) Distributions in statistics: Continuous univariate distributions-1. Wiley.Google Scholar
Jones, L. V. (1987) The influence on mathematics test scores, by ethnicity and sex, of prior achievement and high school mathematics courses. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 18:180–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1985) Cognitive coordinate systems: Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability. Psychological Review 92:137–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kail, R., Carter, P. & Pellegrino, J. (1979) The locus of sex differences in spatial ability. Perception and Psychophysics 26:182–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlsson, J. L. (1973) Genetic relationship between giftedness and myopia. Hereditas 73:85–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlsson, J. L. (1975) Influence of the myopia gene on brain development. Clinical Genetics 8:314–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keating, D. P. (1974) The study of mathematically precocious youth. In: Mathematical talent: Discovery, description, and development, ed. Stanley, J. C., Keating, D. P. & Fox, L. H.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Keating, D. P. & Stanley, J. C. (1972) Extreme measures for the exceptionally gifted in mathematics and science. Educational Researcher 1(9):3–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keeves, J. (1973) Differences between the sexes in mathematics and science courses. International Review of Education 19:47–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, E. F. (1985) Reflections on gender and science. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, A. (1979) Girls and science: An international study of sex differences in school science achievement. Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, D. D. (1985) Sexual differentiation of the nervous system. In: Principles of neural science, ed. Kandel, E. R. & Schwartz, J. H.. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Kenrick, D. T. (1987) Gender, genes, and the social environment: A biosocial interactionist perspective. In: Review of personality & social psychology. Vol. 8: Sex and gender, ed. Shaver, P. C. & Hendrick, C.. Sage Press.Google Scholar
Kessen, W. (1965) The child. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Kimura, D. (1987) Are men's and women's brains really different? Canadian Psychology 28:133–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kinsbourne, M. (1974) Mechanisms of hemispheric interaction in man. In: Hemispheric cerebral function, ed. Kinsbourne, M. & Thomas, L. Smith. Charles.Google Scholar
Kolata, G. B. (1980) Math and sex: Are girls born with less ability? Science 210:1262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolata, G. B. (1983) Math genius may have hormonal basis. Science 222:1312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kornbrot, D. E. (in press) Degree performance as a function of discipline studied, parental occupation, and gender. Higher Education.Google Scholar
Lansman, M., Donaldson, G., Hunt, E. & Yantis, S. (1982) Ability factors and cognitive processes. Intelligence 6:347–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawrence, G. (1984) A synthesis of learning style research involving the MBTI. Journal of Psychological Type 8:2–15.Google Scholar
Levy, J. (1976) Cerebral lateralization and spatial ability. Behavior Genetics 6:171–188.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levy, J. & Gur, R. C. (1980) Individual differences in psychoneurological organization. In: Neuropsychology of left-handedness, ed. Herron, J.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Levy, J. & Reid, M. (1978) Variations in cerebral organization as a function of handedness, hand posture in writing, and sex. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 107:119–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewis, R. S. & Kamptner, N. L. (1987) Sex differences in spatial task performance of patients with and without unilateral cerebral lesions. Brain and Cognition 6:142–152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Light, R. J. & Pillemer, D. B. (1984) Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Linn, M. C. & Peterson, A. C. (1985) Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development 56:1479–1498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loehlin, J. C. & Nichols, R. C. (1976) Heredity, environment, and personality: A study of 850 sets of twins. University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Long, R. L. & Murray, M. E. (1982) Review: Neurophysiological aspects of developmental dyslexia. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 3:2–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luchins, E. H. & Luchins, A. S. (1980) Female mathematicians: A contemporary appraisal. In: Women and the mathematical mystique, ed. Fox, L. H., Brody, L. & Tobin, D.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Lyon, M. F. (1961) Gene action in the X-chromosome of the mouse (Mus musculus L.). Nature 190:S.372–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccoby, E. E. (1966) The development of sex differences. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E., Doering, C. H., Jacklin, C. N. & Kraemer, H. (1979) Concentrations of sex hormones in umbilical-cord blood: Their relation to sex and birth order of infants. Child Development 50:632–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccoby, E. E. & Jacklin, C. N. (1974) The psychology of sex differences. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Maclusky, N. J., Naftolin, F. & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1986) Estrogen formation and binding in the cerebral cortex of the developing rhesus monkey. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 83:513–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marshall, S. P. (1983) Sex differences in mathematical errors: An analysis of distractor choices. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 14:325–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinez, D. & Halpern, D. F. (1987) Effects of sex and handedness on cognitive abilities. Paper presented at the Sixty-sixth Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, Long Beach, Calif.Google Scholar
Mateer, C. A., Polen, S. B. & Ojemann, G. A. (1982) Sexual variation in cortical localization of naming as determined by stimulation mapping. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 5:310–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, R. E. (1983) Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Freeman.Google Scholar
Mayer, R. E. (1985) Mathematical ability. In: Human abilities: An information-processing approach, ed. Sternberg, R.. Freeman, W. H..Google Scholar
McCall, J. R. (1955) Sex differences in intelligence: A comparative factor study. The Catholic University of America Press.Google Scholar
McGee, M. G. (1979) Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin 86:889–918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlone, J. (1980) Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: A critical analysis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3:215–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKeever, W. F., Seitz, K. S., Hoff, A. L., Marino, M. F. & Diehl, J. A. (1983) Interacting sex and familial sinistrality characteristics influence both language lateralization and spatial ability in right-handers. Neuropsychologia 21:661–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKeever, W. F., Vandeventer, A. D. & Suberi, M. (1973) Avowed-, assessed-, and familial-handedness and differential processing of brief sequential and nonsequential visual stimuli. Neuropsychologia 11:235–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mebert, C. J. & Michel, G. F. (1980) Handedness in artists. In: Neuropsychology of left-handedness, ed. Herron, J.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Meece, J. L., Parsons, J. E., Kaczala, C. M., Goff, S. B. & Futterman, R. (1982) Sex differences in math achievement: Toward a model of academic choice. Psychological Bulletin 91:324–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millar, M. J. & Whitaker, H. A. (1983) The right hemisphere's contribution to language. In: Language functions and brain organization, ed. Millar, M. J. & Whitaker, H. A.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Mills, C. J. (1981) Sex roles, personality, and intellectual abilities in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 10:85–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills, C. J. (1984) Sex differences in self-concept and self-esteem for mathematically precocious adolescents. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Mills, C. J. (1985) Psychological type and learning style differences in a gifted and normative population of adolescents. Paper presented at the Northeastern Educational Researchers Organization meeting, Rockport, Maine.Google Scholar
Minor, L. L. & Benbow, C. P. (1986) Construct validity of the SAT-M: A comparative study of high school students and gifted seventh graders. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Mokros, J. R. & Koff, E. (1978) Sex-stereotyping of children's success in mathematics and reading. Psychological Reports 42:1287–1293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Money, J. (1964) Two cytogenetic syndromes: Psychologic comparisons, 1. Intelligence and specific-factor quotients. Journal of Psychiatry Research 2:223–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Money, J. & Lewis, V. (1966) IQ, genetics and accelerated growth: Adrenogenital syndrome. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 118:365–373.Google Scholar
Moore, E. G. J. & Smith, A. W. (1987) Sex and ethnic group differences in mathematics achievement: Results from the National Longitudinal Study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 18:25–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, M. A., Dubas, J. S. & Newcombe, N. (1987) Biological and experiential factors in sex-related differences in spatial ability. Paper presented to the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore.Google Scholar
Mullen, B. & Rosenthal, R. (1985) BASIC meta-analysis: Procedures and programs. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Mura, R. (1987) Sex-related differences in expectations of success in undergraduate mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 18:15–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasrallah, H. A., Andreasen, N. C., Coffman, J. A., Olson, S. C., Dunn, V. D., Ehrhardt, J. C. & Chapman, S. M. (1986) A controlled magnetic resonance imaging study of corpus callosum thickness in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 21:274–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nass, R., Baker, S., Speiser, P., Virdis, R., Balsamo, A., Cacciari, E., Loche, A., Dumic, M. & New, M. (1987) Hormones and handedness – Left-hand bias in female congenital adrenal hyperplasia patients. Neurology 37:711–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Assessment of Educational Progress (1975) Males dominate in educational success. NAEP Newsletter 8:insert.Google Scholar
National Assessment of Educational Progress (1979) Mathematical knowledge and skills: Selected results from the second assessment of mathematics. Denver, Colorado: Education Commission of the States.Google Scholar
National Commission for Excellence in Education (1983) A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. U.S. Department of Education.Google Scholar
National Institute of Education (1977) Grants for research on education and work. Washington, D. C.: National Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Nesher, P. (1986) Learning mathematics: A cognitive perspective. American Psychologist 41:1114–1121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newcombe, N. (1982) Sex-related differences in spatial ability: Problems and gaps in current approaches. In: Spatial abilities: Development and physiological foundations, ed. Potegal, M.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Newcombe, N. & Dubas, J. S. (1987) Individual differences in cognitive ability: Are they related to timing of puberty? In: Biological-psychosocial interactions in early adolescence, ed. Lerner, R. M. & Foch, T. T.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Nicholls, J. (1980) A re-examination of boys and girls causal attributions for success and failure based on New Zealand data. In: Achievement motivation: Recent trends in theory and research, ed. Fyans, L.. Plenum.Google Scholar
Nielsen, J., Nyborg, H. & Dahl, G. (1977) Turner's syndrome. A psychiatric-psychological study of 45 women with Turner's syndrome, compared with their sisters and women with normal karyotype, growth retardation, and primary amenorrhoea. Acta Jutlandica, Medicine Series 21. Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Nochlin, L. (1972) Why are there no great women artists? In: Woman in sexist society, ed. Gornick, V. & Moran, B.. New American Library.Google Scholar
Nordeen, E. J. & Yahr, P. (1982) Hemispheric asymmetries in the behavioral and hormonal effects of sexually differentiating mammalian brain. Science 218:391–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyborg, H. (1979) Sex chromosome abnormalities and cognitive performance. V. Female sex hormones and discontinuous cognitive development. Paper presented at the fifth biennial meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioural Development, Lund, Sweden.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (1983) Spatial ability in men and women: Review and new theory. Advances in Behavioural Research and Therapy 5:89–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyborg, H. (1984) Performance and intelligence in hormonally-different groups. In: Sex differences in the brain – the relation between structure and function. Progress in brain research, vol. 61, ed. DeVries, G. J., DeBruin, J. P. C., Uylings, H. B. M. & Corner, M. A.. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (1986) Sex chromosomes, sex hormones, and developmental disturbances: In search of a model. Paper presented at the 152nd Annual National Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (1987) Covariant trait development across races, and within individuals. Paper presented at the third meeting of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
Nyborg, H. (submitted) Principles of sex hormonal regulation of body, brain and behavioral development.Google Scholar
Byborg, H. & Nielsen, J. (1981) Sex hormone treatment and spatial ability in women with Turner's syndrome. In: Human behavior and genetics, ed. Schmid, W. & Nielsen, J.. Elsevier.Google Scholar
O'boyle, M. W. & Hoff, E. J. (1987) Gender and handedness differences in mirror-tracing random forms. Neuropsychologia 25:977–982.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oldfield, R. C. (1971) The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh Inventory. Neuropsychologia 9:97–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oppenheim, J. S., Lee, B. C. P., Nass, R. & Gazzaniga, M. S. (1987) No sex-related differences in human corpus callosum based on magnetic resonance imagery. Annals of Neurology 21:604–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paige, J. R. & Simon, H. (1966) Cognitive processes in solving algebra word problems. In: Problem solving: Research, method, and theory, ed. Kleinmuntz, B.. Wiley.Google Scholar
Pallas, A. M. & Alexander, K. L. (1983) Sex differences in quantitative SAT performance: New evidence on the differential coursework hypothesis. American Educational Research Journal 20:165–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, J. E., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L. & Midgley, C. (1983) Expectancies, values, and academic behavior. In: Achievement and achievement motives: Psychological and sociological approaches, ed. Spence, J. T., Freeman, W. H..Google Scholar
Parsons, J. E., Adler, T. F. & Kaczala, C. (1982) Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Parental influences. Child Development 53:310–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parsons, J. E., Kaczala, C. & Meece, J. (1982) Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Classroom influences. Child Development 53:322–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pattison, P. & Grieve, N. (1984) Do spatial skills contribute to sex differences in different types of mathematical problems? Journal of Educational Psychology 76:678–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulsen, K. & Johnson, M. (1983) Sex-role attitudes and mathematical ability in 4th, 8th, and 11th grade students from a high socioeconomic area. Developmental Psychology 19:210–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pederson, K., Elmore, P. & Bleyer, D. (1986) Parent attitudes and student career interests. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 17:49–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedro, J. D., Wolleat, P., Fennema, E. & Becker, A. D. (1981) Election of high school mathematics by females and males: Attributions and attitudes. American Educational Research Journal 18:207–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellegrino, J. W. & Kair, R. Jr, (1982) Process analyses of spatial aptitude. In: Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, vol. 1, ed. Steinberg, R. J.. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Petersen, A. C. (1976) Physical androgeny and cognitive functioning in adolescence. Developmental Psychology 12:524–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peterson, P. L. & Fennema, E. (1985) Effective teaching, student engagement in classroom activities, and sex-related differences in learning mathematics. American Educational Research Journal 22:309–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrusic, W. M., Varro, L. & Jamieson, D. G. (1978) Mental rotation validation of two spatial ability tests. Psychological Research 40:39–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R. & Daniels, D. (1987) Why are children in the same family so different from each other? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:1–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poffenberger, T. & Norton, D. (1959) Factors in the formation of attitudes toward mathematics. Journal for Educational Research 52:171–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poltrock, S. E. & Brown, P. (1984) Individual differences in visual imagery and spatial ability. Intelligence 8:93–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pomerantz, S. M., Fox, T., Sholl, S. A., Vito, C. C. & Goy, R. (1985) Androgen and estrogen receptors in fetal rhesus monkey brain and anterior pituitary. Endocrinology 116:83–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porac, C. & Coren, S. (1981) Lateral preferences and human behavior. Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porac, C., Coren, S. & Searleman, A. (1986) Environmental factors in hand preference formation: Evidence from attempts to switch the preferred hand. Behavior Genetics 16:251–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I., Boies, S. J., Eichelman, W. H. & Taylor, R. L. (1969) Retention of visual and name codes of single letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology 79:1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Potter, S. (1950) Lifemanship. Henry Holt.Google Scholar
Ray, W. J., Newcombe, N., Semon, J. & Cole, P. M. (1981) Spatial abilities, sex differences and EEG functioning. Neuropsychologia 19:719–722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raymond, C. L. & Benbow, C. P. (1986) Gender differences in mathematics: A function of parental support and sex-typing? Developmental Psychology 22:808–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raymond, C. L. & Benbow, C. P. (submitted) Educational encouragement by parents: Its relationship to children's aptitude and perceptions and gender differences.Google Scholar
Read, D. B. (1981) Solving deductive reasoning problems after unilateral temporal lobectomy. Brain and Language 12:116–127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reinisch, J. M. (1984) Prenatal gonadal steroid influences on gender-related behavior. In: Progress in brain research, vol. 61, ed. De Vries, G. J., DeBruin, J. P. C., Uylings, H. B. M. & Corner, M. A.. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Reinisch, J. M. & Gandelman, R. (1978) Human research in behavioral endocrinology: Methodological and theoretical considerations. In: Hormones and brain development, ed. Dorner, G.. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Reinisch, J. M., Gandelman, R. & Spiegel, F. S. (1979) Prenatal influences on cognitive abilities: Data from experimental animals and human and endocrine syndromes. In: Sex-related differences in cognitive functioning: Developmental issues, ed. Wittig, M. & Petersen, A. C.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Reinisch, J. M. & Sanders, S. A. (1984) Prenatal gonadal steroidal influences on gender-related behavior. Progress in Brain Research 61:407–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reis, S. M. (1987) We can't change what we don't recognize: Understanding the special needs of gifted females. Gifted Child Quarterly 31(2):83–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reschly, D. J. & Jipson, F. J. (1976) Ethnicity, geographic locale, age, sex, and urban-rural residence as variables in the prevalence of mind retardation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency 81:154–161.Google Scholar
Resnick, L. B. & Ford, W. W. (1981) The psychology of mathematics for instruction. Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Resnick, S. M., Berenbaum, S. A., Gottesman, I. I. & Bouchard, T. J. Jr, (1986) Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology 22:191–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resnick, S. M. & Gottesman, I. I. (1978) Prenatal hormones and IQ: Need for sibling controls. British Journal of Psychiatry 132:205–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, H. B. (1983) A case for radical acceleration: Programs of The Johns Hopkins University and the University of Washington. In: Academic precocity: Aspects of its development, ed. Benbow, C. & Stanley, J.. The Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Robitaille, D. F. (1977) A comparison of boys and girls feelings of self-confidence in arithmetic computation. Canadian Journal of Education 2:15–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roland, P. E. & Friberg, L. (1985) Localization of cortical areas activated by thinking. Journal of Neurophysiology 53:1219–1243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rose, R. M., Holaday, J. W. & Bernstein, I. (1971) Plasma testosterone, dominance rank, and aggressive behavior in male rhesus monkeys. Nature 231:366–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roselli, C. & Resko, J. (1986) Effects of gonadectomy and androgen treatment on aromatase activity in the fetal monkey brain. Biology of Reproduction 35:106–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, K. & Kimura, D. (1987) Hormonal influences on cognitive ability patterns. Department of Psychology Research Bulletin No. 653, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R., ed. (1980) Quantitative assessment of research domains. (New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, No. 5.) Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R., ed. (1984) Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Sage.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R., ed. (1987) Judgment studies: Design, analysis, and meta-analysis. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, R. & Rosnow, R. (1985) Essentials of behavioral research: Methods and data-analysis. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R. & Rubin, D. B. (1982) Further meta-analytic procedures for assessing cognitive gender differences. Journal of Educational Psychology 74:708–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossiter, M. W. (1982) Women scientists in America. The Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rovet, J. & Netley, C. (1982) Processing deficits in Turner's Syndrome. Developmental Psychology 18:77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushton, J. P. (in press) Race differences in behaviour: A review and evolutionary analysis. Personality and Individual Differences.Google Scholar
Sanders, B., Scares, M. P. & D'aquila, J. M. (1982) The sex difference on one test of spatial visualization: A nontrivial difference. Child Development 53:1106–1110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sapoisky, R. M. (1987) The case of the falling nightwatchman. Discover 8:42–45.Google Scholar
Satz, P. & Soper, H. (1986) Left-handedness, dyslexia, and autoimmune disorder: A critique. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 8:453–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scarr, S. & Saltzman, L. C. (1982) Genetics and intelligence. In: Handbook of human intelligence. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schachter, S. C., Ransil, B. J. & Geschwind, N. (1987) Association of handedness with haircolor and learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia 25:269–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaub, W. (1971) Die genealogische Datenbank im Dienste der Wissenschaft. Genealogie 20:577–585, 630–638.Google Scholar
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1985) Mathematical problem solving. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Searleman, A., Herrman, D. J. & Coventry, A. K. (1984) Cognitive abilities and left-handedness: An interaction between familial sinistrality and strength of handedness. Intelligence 8:295–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segalowitz, S. J. & Bryden, M. P. (1983) Individual differences in hemispheric representation of language. In: Language functions and brain organization, ed. Segalowitz, S. J.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Senk, S. & Usiskin, Z. (1983) Geometry proof writing: A new view of sex differences in mathematics ability. Journal of Educational Research 91:187–201.Google Scholar
Sergent, J. (1982) The cerebral balance of power: Confrontation or cooperation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 8:253–272.Google ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. (1967) The problem of sex differences in space perception and aspects of individual functioning. Psychological Review 74:290–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, J. A. (1974) Field articulation, sex, spatial visualization, dependency, practice, laterality of the brain and birth order. Perceptual and Motor Skills 38:1223–1235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. (1977) Effects of biological factors on sex-related differences in mathematics achievement. Women and mathematics: Research perspectives for change. NIE papers in Education and Work: No. 8.Google Scholar
Sherman, J. A. (1980) Mathematics, spatial visualization and related factors: Changes in girls and boys, grades 8–11. Journal of Educational Psychology 72:476–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sherman, J. A. & Fennema, E. (1977) The study of mathematics by high school girls and boys: Related variables. American Educational Research Journal 14:159–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegler, R. J. (in press) Individual differences in strategy choices: Good students, not-so-good students, and perfectionists. Child Development.Google Scholar
Signorella, M. L. & Jamison, W. (1986) Masculinity, femininity, androgyny, and cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 100:207–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, I. M. (1964) Spatial ability. The University of London Press.Google Scholar
Sofaer, J. & Emery, A. (1981) Genes for super-intelligence. Journal of Medical Genetics 18:410–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sprafkin, C., Serbin, S. A., Denier, C. & Connor, J. M. (1983) Sex-differentiated play: Cognitive consequences and early interventions. In: Social and cognitive skills, ed. Liss, M. B.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Stafford, R. E. (1964) Sex differences in spatial visualization as evidence of sex-linked inheritance. Perceptual and Motor Skills 13:4–28.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. (1982) Identification of intellectual talent. In: Measurement, guidance, and program improvement New directions for testing and measurement series, No. 13:97–109.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. (1987) Sex differences on cognitive tests: A summary. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. (1987a) Gender differences on the College Board Achievement Tests and the Advanced Placement Examinations: Effect sizes versus some upper-tail ratios. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. (1987b) Summary of points made in the symposium. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C. & Benbow, C. P. (1983) 15:1 isn't “catching up”! Psychological Reports 52:656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stanley, J. C. & Benbow, C. P. (1986) Youths who reason exceptionally well mathematically. In: Conceptions of giftedness, ed. Sternberg, R. J. & Davison, J., Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C., Brody, L. E., Dauber, S. L., Lupkowski, A. E. & Benbow, C. P. (1987) Sex differences in cognitive abilities and achievements. A symposium presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Stanley, J. C., Huang, Jia-Fen & Zu, Xue-Min (1986) SAT-M scores of highly selected students in Shanghai tested when less than 13 years old. College Board Review 140:10–13, 28–29.Google Scholar
Steen, L. A. (1987) Mathematics education: A predictor of scientific competitiveness. Science 237:251CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, A. H. (1971) The effects of sex-role standards for achievement and sex-role preference on three determinants of achievement motivation. Developmental Psychology 4:219–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, A. A. & Smithells, J. (1969) Age and sex differences in children's sex role standards about achievement. Developmental Psychology 1:252–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S.-Y. & Stigler, J. W. (1986) Mathematics achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American children. Science 231:693–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stright, V. M. (1960) A study of the attitudes toward mathematics of students and teachers in the third, fourth, and sixth grades. Arithmetic Teacher 7:280–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturt, E. & McGuffin, P. (1985) Can linkage and marker associations resolve the genetic aetiology of psychiatric disorders? Review and argument. Psychological Medicine 15:455–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suydam, M. N. & Weaver, J. F. (1975) Using research: A key to elementary school mathematics. Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education Clearinghouse in cooperation with the Center for Science and Mathematics.Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979) The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1987) The evolutionary approach: Can Darwin's view of life shed light on human sexuality? In: Theories of human sexuality, ed. Geer, J. H. & O'Donohue, W. T.. Plenum.Google Scholar
Tapley, S. M. & Bryden, M. P. (1977) An investigation of sex differences in spatial ability: Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Canadian Journal of Psychology 31:122–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terman, L. M. (1954) Scientists and nonscientists in a group of 800 gifted men. Psychological Monographs 68(7):1–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terman, L. M. & Oden, M. H. (1959) The gifted group at midlife. Genetic studies of genius, vol. 5. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Tiger, L. (1987) The manufacture of evil: Ethics, evolution, and the industrial system. Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Tiger, L. & Shepher, J. (1975) Women in the kibbutz. Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Tobias, S. (1978) Overcoming math anxiety. Norton.Google Scholar
Tobias, S. & Weissbrod, C. (1980) Anxiety and mathematics: An update. Harvard Educational Review 50:63–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tobin, D. (1986) A longitudinal study of values and career interests of mathematically gifted students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Toran-Allerand, D. (1986) Sexual differentiation of the brain. In: Developmental neuropsychobiology, ed. Greenough, W. T. & Juraska, J. M.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Troup, G. A., Bradshaw, J. L. & Nettleton, N. C. (1983) The lateralization of arithmetic and number processing: A review. International Journal of Neuroscience 19:231–242.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trune, D. (1982) Influence of neonatal cochlear removal on the development of mouse cochlear nucleus. 1. Number, size, and density of its neurons. Journal of Comparative Neurology 209:409–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, H. (1938) A syndrome of infantilism, congenital webbed neck, and cubitus valgus. Endocrinology 23:566–574.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
University of London (1985) General Certificate of Education Examination: Statistics. University of London Press.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education (1986) What works: Research about teaching and learning. Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (1979) Uniform Crime Reports of the United States, 1979. U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Vandenberg, S. G. & Kuse, A. R. (1979) Spatial ability: A critical review of the sex-linked major gene hypotheses. In: Determinants of sex-related differences in cognitive functioning, ed. Wittig, M. C. & Petersen, A. C.. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Van Haaren, F. & Van De Poll, N. E. (1984) The effect of a choice alternative on sex differences in passive avoidance behavior. Physiology and Behavior 32:211–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Hest, A., Van Haaren, F. & Van De Poll, N. E. (1987) Behavioral differences between male and female Wistar rats on DRL schedules: Effects of stimuli providing collateral activities. Physiology and Behavior 39:255–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vellutino, F. R. (1979) Dyslexia: Theory and research. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Very, P. S. (1967) Differential factor structures in mathematical ability. Genetic Psychology Monographs 75(2): 169–207.Google ScholarPubMed
Villardita, C. (1987) Verbal memory and semantic clustering in right brain-damaged patients. Neuropsychologia 25:277–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waber, D. P. (1976) Sex differences in mental abilities: A function of maturation rate? Science 192:572–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waber, D. P. (1977) Sex differences in mental abilities, hemispheric lateralization, and rate of physical growth at adolescence. Developmental Psychology 13:29–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waber, D. P., Mann, M. B., Merola, J. & Moylan, D. M. (1985) Physical maturation rate and cognitive performance in early adolescence: A longitudinal evaluation. Developmental Psychology 21:666–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walberg, H. J. (1983) Scientific literacy and economic productivity in international perspective. Daedalus 112:1–28.Google Scholar
Walberg, H. J. (1984) Improving the productivity of America's schools. Educational Leadership 41(8):19–27.Google Scholar
Walberg, H. J. & Tsai, S.-L. (1983) Matthew effects in education. American Educational Research Journal 20:359–373.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1982) The fractionation of arithmetic skills: A single case study. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 34A:31–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, G. & Weis, S. (1986) Morphometric analysis of the human corpus callosum fails to reveal sex-related differences. Journal für Hirnforschung 2:237–240.Google Scholar
Webster, D. & Webster, M. (1977) Neonatal sound deprivation affects brain stem auditory nuclei. Archives of Otolaryngology 103:392–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, V. (1982) Psychogenetik. Jena: Gustar Fischer.Google Scholar
Werts, C. E. (1967) Career changes in college. Sociology of Education 40:90–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiesel, T. N. (1982) Postnatal development of the visual cortex and the influence of environment. Nature 299:583–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, D. A. (1980) Do males have a math gene? Newsweek, December 15.Google Scholar
Wilson, J. W. (1972) Patterns of mathematics achievement in grade 11:Z population. National Longitudinal Study of Mathematical Abilities. Report No. 17. Stanford, Calif: School Mathematics Study Group.Google Scholar
Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1985) Competitiveness, risk-taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. Ethology and Sociobiology 6:59–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wise, L. L. (1985) Project Talent: Mathematics course participation in the 1960s and its career consequences. In: Women and mathematics: Balancing the equation, ed. Chipman, S. F., Brush, L. R. & Wilson, D. M., Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Wise, L. L., Steel, L. & Macdonald, C. (1979) Origins and career consequences of sex differences in high school mathematics achievement. American Institute for Research.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F. (1976) Sex and the single hemisphere: Specialization of the right hemisphere for spatial processing. Science 193:425–427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witelson, S. F. (1985) The brain connection: The corpus callosum is larger in left-handers. Science 229:665–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witelson, S. F. (1985a) An exchange on “gender” with R. C. Lewontin. New York Review of Books 32 (October 24):53–55.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F. (1986) Wires of the mind: Anatomical variation in the corpus callosum in relation to hemispheric specialization and integration. Neurology and Neurobiology 17:117–138.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F. (1987a) Neurobiological aspects of language in children. Child Development 58:653–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witelson, S. F. (1987b) Hand preference and sex differences in the isthmus of the corpus callosum. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 13:48.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F. & Kigar, D. L. (1987) Individual differences in the anatomy of the corpus callosum: Sex, hand preference, schizophrenia and hemisphere specialization. In: Individual differences in hemisphere specialization, ed. Glass, A.. NATO ASI Series, 130. Plenum.Google Scholar
Witelson, S. F. & Kigar, D. L. (1988) Anatomical development of the human corpus callosum: A review with reference to sex and cognition. In: Developmental implications of brain lateralization, ed. Molfese, D. L. & Segalowitz, S. J.. Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Wolf, F. M. (1986) Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolins, L. & Benbow, C. P. (in preparation) Item performance on the SAT-M: Differences by gender and between seventh graders and high school students.Google Scholar
Woolf, V. (1929) A room of one's own. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Zaidel, E. (1978) Lexical organization in the right hemisphere. In: Cerebral correlates of conscious experience, ed. Buser, and Rougeul-Buser. INSERM Symposium No. 6. Elsevier Press.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, W. (1984) The reliability and validity of the Bern Sex Role Inventory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Johns Hopkins University.Google Scholar
Zolog, A. (1983) Speech disturbances in parietal lobe lesions. Neurologie et Psychiatrie 21(3):165–167.Google Scholar