Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-wq2xx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-23T23:04:12.070Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Epidemiology of Concussive Brain Injury

from Part I - What Is a Concussion?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 February 2019

By
Jeff Victoroff
Edited by
Jeff Victoroff  and
Erin D. Bigler
Jeff Victoroff
Affiliation:
University of Southern California, Torrance
Erin D. Bigler
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University, Utah
Get access

Summary

In order to estimate the impact of concussive brain injuries on global health and well-being, one needs to know both the frequency with which they occur and the frequency with which they are associated with impairment, of what degree, for what time period. Moreover, accurate appraisals of variations in occurrence, severity, and duration of impact between demographically or biologically different cohorts (e.g., the special vulnerability of teenaged girls) is necessary both to discover risk factors and, eventually, to inform the innovation of targeted preventions and interventions. None of those numbers is known. Occurrence is unknown because only a subset of concussive brain injuries ever presents for medical attention. However, based on evidence regarding non-reporting and non-recording, it seems likely that frequently cited published estimates of occurrence are underestimates. More important: dated methods such as conventional neuropsychological testing were once cited as evidence that the effects of sports-related concussions are transient and benign. As illustrated by the cover of this textbook, modern science dispels that mythology.
Type
Chapter
Information
Concussion and Traumatic Encephalopathy
Causes, Diagnosis and Management
 , pp. 93 - 137
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Langlois, J, Rutland-Brown, W, Thomas, K. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: Emergency department vists, hospitalizations and deaths. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Acute Care, Rehabilitation Research and Disability Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2004.Google Scholar
Giza, CC, Hovda, DA. The neurometabolic cascade of concussion. J Athl Train 2001;36:228–235.Google Scholar
Giza, CC, Hovda, DA. The new neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Neurosurgery 2014;75(Suppl 4): S24–S33.Google Scholar
Brown, AW, Leibson, CL, Malec, JF, Perkins, PK, Diehl, NN, Larson, DR. Long-term survival after traumatic brain injury: A population-based analysis. NeuroRehabilitation 2004;19:37–43.Google Scholar
Carroll, LJ, Cassidy, JD, Holm, L, Kraus, J, Coronado, VG, WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Methodological issues and research recommendations for mild traumatic brain injury: The WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004: 113–25.Google Scholar
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Report to Congress on mild traumatic brain injury in the United States: Steps to prevent a serious public health problem. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003.Google Scholar
Kay, T, Harrington, DE, Adams, R, Anderson, TJ, Berrol, S, Cicerone, KD, et al. Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1993;8:86–87.Google Scholar
Levin, HS, O’Donnell, VM, Grossman, RG. The Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test. A practical scale to assess cognition after head injury. J Nerv Ment Dis 1979;167:675–684.Google Scholar
Powell, GE. Mild traumatic brain injury and postconcussion syndrome: The importance of base rates in diagnosis and clinical formulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:237.Google Scholar
Barker-Collo, SL, Feigin, VL. Capturing. the spectrum: Suggested standards for conducting population-based traumatic brain injury incidence studies. Neuroepidemiology 2009;32:1–3.Google Scholar
Powell, JM, Ferraro, JV, Dikmen, SS, Temkin, NR, Bell, KR. Accuracy of mild traumatic brain injury diagnosis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:1550–1557.Google Scholar
Faul, M, Xu, L, Wald, MM, Coronado, V. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: Emergency department vists, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–2006. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010.Google Scholar
Thurman, D, Alverson, C, Browne, D, Dunn, K, Guerrero, J, Johnson, VE, et al. Division of acute care, rehabilitation research, and disability prevention. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999.Google Scholar
Thurman, DJ, Sniezek, JE, Johnson, D, Greenspane A, Smith SM. Guidelines for surveillance of central nervous system injury. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1995.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Traumatic brain injury in the United States. A report to Congress. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1999.Google Scholar
Cassidy, JD, Carroll, LJ, Peloso, PM, Borg, J, Von Holst, H, Holm, L, et al. Incidence, risk factors and prevention of mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med 2004;28–60.Google Scholar
Langlois, JA, Kegler, SR, Butler, JA, Gotsch, KE, Johnson, RL, Reichard, AA, et al. Traumatic brain injury-related hospital discharges. Results from a 14-state surveillance system, 1997. MMWR Surveill Summ 2003;52:1–20.Google Scholar
Pickelsimer, EE, Selassie, AW, Gu, JK, Langlois, JA. A population-based outcomes study of persons hospitalized with traumatic brain injury: Operations of the South Carolina Traumatic Brain Injury Follow-up Registry. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2006;21:491–504.Google Scholar
Sosin, DM, Sniezek, JE, Thurman, DJ. Incidence of mild and moderate brain injury in the United States, 1991. Brain Inj 1996;10:47–54.Google Scholar
Crossman, J, Bankes, M, Bhan, A, Crockard, HA. The Glasgow Coma Score: Reliable evidence? Injury 1998;29:435–437.Google Scholar
Gill, MR, Reiley, DG, Green, SM. Interrater reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2004;43:215–223.Google Scholar
Namiki, J, Yamazaki, M, Funabiki, T, Hori, S. Inaccuracy and misjudged factors of Glasgow Coma Scale scores when assessed by inexperienced physicians. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011;113:393–398.Google Scholar
Riechers, RG, 2nd, Ramage, A, Brown, W, Kalehua, A, Rhee, P, Ecklund, JM, et al. Physician knowledge of the Glasgow Coma Scale. J Neurotrauma 2005;22:1327–1334.Google Scholar
Rowley, G, Fielding, K. Reliability and accuracy of the Glasgow Coma Scale with experienced and inexperienced users. Lancet 1991;337:535–538.Google Scholar
Teasdale, G, Jennett, B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2:81–84.Google Scholar
Berger, RP, Dulani, T, Adelson, PD, Leventhal, JM, Richichi, R, Kochanek, PM. Identification of inflicted traumatic brain injury in well-appearing infants using serum and cerebrospinal markers: A possible screening tool. Pediatrics 2006;117: 325–332.Google Scholar
Kerr, ZY, Register-Mihalik, JK, Marshall, SW, Evenson, KR, Mihalik, JP, Guskiewicz, KM. Disclosure and non-disclosure of concussion and concussion symptoms in athletes: Review and application of the socio-ecological framework. Brain Inj 2014;28:1009–1021.Google Scholar
Mccrea, M, Hammeke, T, Olsen, G, Leo, P, Guskiewicz, K. Unreported concussion in high school football players: Implications for prevention. Clin J Sport Med 2004;14:13–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Register-Mihalik, JK, Guskiewicz, KM, Mcleod, TC, Linnan, LA, Mueller, FO, Marshall, SW. Knowledge, attitude, and concussion-reporting behaviors among high school athletes: A preliminary study. J Athl Train 2013;48:645–653.Google Scholar
Macciocchi, S, Seel, RT, Thompson, N, Byams, R, Bowman, B. Spinal cord injury and co-occurring traumatic brain injury: Assessment and incidence. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:1350–1357.Google Scholar
Sharma, B, Bradbury, C, Mikulis, D, Green, R. Missed diagnosis of traumatic brain injury in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Med 2014;46:370–373.Google Scholar
Tolonen, A, Turkka, J, Salonen, O, Ahoniemi, E, Alaranta, H. Traumatic brain injury is under-diagnosed in patients with spinal cord injury. J Rehabil Med 2007;39:622–626.Google Scholar
Deepika, A, Munivenkatappa, A, Devi, BI, Shukla, D. Does isolated traumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage affect outcome in patients with mild traumatic brain injury? J Head Trauma Rehabil 2013;28:442–445.Google Scholar
Jacobs, B, Beems, T, Stulemeijer, M, Van Vugt, AB, Van Der Vliet, TM, Borm, GF, et al. Outcome prediction in mild traumatic brain injury: Age and clinical variables are stronger predictors than CT abnormalities. J Neurotrauma 2010;27:655–668.Google Scholar
Lannsjo, M, Backheden, M, Johansson, U, Af Geijerstam, JL, Borg, J. Does head CT scan pathology predict outcome after mild traumatic brain injury? Eur J Neurol 2013;20:124–129.Google Scholar
Lee, H, Wintermark, M, Gean, AD, Ghajar, J, Manley, GT, Mukherjee, P. Focal lesions in acute mild traumatic brain injury and neurocognitive outcome: CT versus 3T MRI. J Neurotrauma 2008;25:1049–1056.Google Scholar
Yuh, EL, Cooper, SR, Mukherjee, P, Yue, JK, Lingsma, HF, Gordon, WA, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging for outcome prediction in mild traumatic brain injury: A TRACK-TBI study. J Neurotrauma 2014;31:1457–1477.Google Scholar
Huff, JS, Jahar, S. Differences in interpretation of cranial computed tomography in ED traumatic brain injury patients by expert neuroradiologists. Am J Emerg Med 2014;32:606–608.Google Scholar
Laalo, JP, Kurki, TJ, Sonninen, PH, Tenovuo, OS. Reliability of diagnosis of traumatic brain injury by computed tomography in the acute phase. J Neurotrauma 2009;26:2169–2178.Google Scholar
Pape, TL, High, WM, Jr., St Andre, J, Evans, C, Smith, B, Shandera-Ochsner, AL, et al. Diagnostic accuracy studies in mild traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and descriptive analysis of published evidence. PM R 2013;5:856–881.Google Scholar
Powell, GE. Mild traumatic brain injury and postconcussion syndrome: The importance of base rates in diagnosis and clinical formulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:237.Google Scholar
Schootman, M, Fuortes, LJ. Ambulatory care for traumatic brain injuries in the US, 1995–1997. Brain Inj 2000;14:373–381.Google Scholar
Bazarian, JJ, Veazie, P, Mookerjee, S, Lerner, EB. Accuracy of mild traumatic brain injury case ascertainment using ICD-9 codes. Acad Emerg Med 2006;13:31–38.Google Scholar
Fife, D. Head injury with and without hospital admission: comparisons of incidence and short-term disability. Am J Public Health 1987;77:810–812.Google Scholar
Sosin, DM, Sacks, JJ, Webb, KW. Pediatric head injuries and deaths from bicycling in the United States. Pediatrics 1996;98: 868–870.Google Scholar
Boswell, JE, Mcerlean, M, Verdile, VP. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury in an ED population. Am J Emerg Med 2002;20:177–180.Google Scholar
Anonymous. New concussion survey reveals majority of adults are unable to recognize common concussion symptoms. Available at http://abbott.mediaroom.com/2015-08-24-New-Concussion-Survey-Reveals-Majority-of-Adults-are-Unable-to-Recognize-Common-Concussion-Symptoms.Google Scholar
Langlois, JA, Rutland-Brown, W, Wald, MM. The epidemiology and impact of traumatic brain injury: A brief overview. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2006;21:375–378.Google Scholar
Hanson, HR, Pomerantz, WJ, Gittelman, M. ED utilization trends in sports-related traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics 2013;132:e859–e864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Annegers, JF, Grabow, JD, Kurland, LT, Laws, ER, Jr. The incidence, causes, and secular trends of head trauma in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1935–1974. Neurology 1980;30:912–919.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rates of TBI-relates emergency department visits by age-group – United States, 2001–2010. www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/data/rates_ed_byage.html.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Report to Congress on traumatic brain injury in the United States: Epidemiology and rehabilitation. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; Division of Unintentional Injury Prevention; 2015. Available at www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pdf/tbi_report_to_congress_epi_and_rehab-a.pdf.Google Scholar
Dunn, K, Thurman, D, Alverson, C. Appendix B: The epidemiology of traumatic brain injury among children and adolescents. NIH Consensus Development Conference on Rehabilitation of Persons with Traumatic Brain Injury, 1999.Google Scholar
Langlois, JA, Rutland-Brown, W, Thomas, KE. The incidence of traumatic brain injury among children in the United States: Differences by race. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2005; 20: 229–38.Google Scholar
Heffernan, DS, Vera, RM, Monaghan, SF, Thakkar, RK, Kozloff, MS, Connolly, MD, et al. Impact of socioethnic factors on outcomes following traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 2011;70:527–534.Google Scholar
Meagher, AD, Beadles, CA, Doorey, J, Charles, AG. Racial and ethnic disparities in discharge to rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg 2015;122:595–601.Google Scholar
Asemota, AO, George, BP, Cumpsty-Fowler, CJ, Haider, AH, Schneider, EB. Race and insurance disparities in discharge to rehabilitation for patients with traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2013;30:2057–2065.Google Scholar
Linton, KF, Kim, BJ. Traumatic brain injury as a result of violence in Native American and Black communities spanning from childhood to older adulthood. Brain Inj 2014;28:1076–1081.Google Scholar
Perrin, PB, Krch, D, Sutter, M, Snipes, DJ, Arango-Lasprilla, JC, Kolakowsky-Hayner, SA, et al. Racial/ethnic disparities in mental health over the first 2 years after traumatic brain injury: A model systems study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014;95:2288–2295.Google Scholar
Arango-Lasprilla, JC, Ketchum, JM, Williams, K, Kreutzer, JS, Marquez De La Plata, CD, O’Neil-Pirozzi, TM, et al. Racial differences in employment outcomes after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:988–995.Google Scholar
Gary, KW, Arango-Lasprilla, JC, Ketchum, JM, Kreutzer, JS, Copolillo, A, Novack, TA, et al. Racial differences in employment outcome after traumatic brain injury at 1, 2, and 5 years postinjury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90:1699–1707.Google Scholar
Sander, AM, Pappadis, MR, Davis, LC, Clark, AN, Evans, G, Struchen, MA, et al. Relationship of race/ethnicity and income to community integration following traumatic brain injury: Investigation in a non-rehabilitation trauma sample. NeuroRehabilitation 2009;24:15–27.Google Scholar
Selassie, AW, Pickelsimer, EE, Frazier, L, Jr., Ferguson, PL. The effect of insurance status, race, and gender on ED disposition of persons with traumatic brain injury. Am J Emerg Med 2004;22:465–473.Google Scholar
Dismuke, CE, Gebregziabher, M, Yeager, D, Egede, LE. Racial/ethnic differences in combat- and non-combat-associated traumatic brain injury severity in the Veterans Health Administration: 2004–2010. Am J Public Health 2015;105:1696–1702.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Percent distributions of TBI-related emergency department visits by age group and injury mechanism – United States, 2006–2010. www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/data/dist_ed.html.Google Scholar
Cobb, S, Battin, B. Second-impact syndrome. J Sch Nurs 2004;20:262–267.Google Scholar
Gronwall, D, Wrightson, P. Cumulative effect of concussion. Lancet 1975;2:995–997.Google Scholar
Tavazzi, B, Vagnozzi, R, Signoretti, S, Amorini, AM, Belli, A, Cimatti, M, et al. Temporal window of metabolic brain vulnerability to concussions: Oxidative and nitrosative stresses – Part II. Neurosurgery 2007;61:390–395; discussion 395–396.Google Scholar
Vagnozzi, R, Signoretti, S, Tavazzi, B, Cimatti, M, Amorini, AM, Donzelli, S, et al. Hypothesis of the postconcussive vulnerable brain: Experimental evidence of its metabolic occurrence. Neurosurgery 2005;57:164–171; discussion 164–171.Google Scholar
Vagnozzi, R, Tavazzi, B, Signoretti, S, Amorini, AM, Belli, A, Cimatti, M, et al. Temporal window of metabolic brain vulnerability to concussions: Mitochondrial-related impairment – Part I. Neurosurgery 2007;61:379–388; discussion 388–389.Google Scholar
Weinstein, E, Turner, M, Kuzma, BB, Feuer, H. Second impact syndrome in football: New imaging and insights into a rare and devastating condition. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2013;11:331–334.Google Scholar
Jones, E, Fear, NT, Wessely, S. Shell shock and mild traumatic brain injury: A historical review. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1641–1645.Google Scholar
Myers, C. A contribution to the study of shellshock. Being an account of the cases of loss of memory, vision, smell and taste admitted to the Duchess of Westminster’s War Hospital, Le Touquet. Lancet 1915;185:316–320.Google Scholar
Mott, FW. The microscopic examination of the brains of two men dead of commotio cerebri (shell shock) without visible external injury. Br Med J 1917;2:612–615.Google Scholar
Macleod, AD. Shell shock, Gordon Holmes and the Great War. J R Soc Med 2004;97:86–89.Google Scholar
Turner, W. Remarks on cases of nervous and mental shock. BMJ 1915 833–835.Google Scholar
Report of the War Office Committee of Enquiry into “Shellshock”. London: HMSO, 1922.Google Scholar
Lew, HL, Poole, JH, Alvarez, S, Moore, W. Soldiers with occult traumatic brain injury. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2005;84:393–398.Google Scholar
Okie, S. Traumatic brain injury in the war zone. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2043–2047.Google Scholar
Owens, BD, Kragh, JF, Jr., Wenke, JC, Macaitis, J, Wade, CE, Holcomb, JB. Combat wounds in operation Iraqi Freedom and operation Enduring Freedom. J Trauma 2008;64:295–299.Google Scholar
Tanielian, TL, Jaycox, L. Invisible wounds of war: Psychological and cognitive injuries, their consequences, and services to assist recovery. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2008.Google Scholar
Bagalman, E. Health care for veterans: Traumatic brain injury. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2015.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Defense (DoD), Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). Report to Congress on traumatic brain injury in the United States: Understanding the public health problem among current and former military personnel. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Defense (DoD), Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), 2013.Google Scholar
Wilk, JE, Herrell, RK, Wynn, GH, Riviere, LA, Hoge, CW. Mild traumatic brain injury (concussion), posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in U.S. soldiers involved in combat deployments: Association with postdeployment symptoms. Psychosom Med 2012;74:249–257.Google Scholar
Hoge, CW, Castro, CA, Messer, SC, Mcgurk, D, Cotting, DI, Koffman, RL. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. N Engl J Med 2004;351:13–22.Google Scholar
Garvey Wilson, AL, Hoge, CW, Mcgurk, D, Thomas, JL, Castro, CA. Stability of combat exposure recall in Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans. Ann Epidemiol 2010;20:939–947.Google Scholar
Brenner, LA, Ladley-O’Brien, SE, Harwood, JE, Filley, CM, Kelly, JP, Homaifar, BY, et al. An exploratory study of neuroimaging, neurologic, and neuropsychological findings in veterans with traumatic brain injury and/or posttraumatic stress disorder. Mil Med 2009;174:347–352.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA. Posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury: Can they co-exist? Clin Psychol Rev 2001;21:931–948.Google Scholar
Sayer, NA, Rettmann, NA, Carlson, KF, Bernardy, N, Sigford, BJ, Hamblen, JL, et al. Veterans with history of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: Challenges from provider perspective. J Rehabil Res Dev 2009;46:703–716.Google Scholar
Stein, MB, McAllister, TW. Exploring the convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury. Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:768–776.Google Scholar
Tanev, KS, Pentel, KZ, Kredlow, MA, Charney, ME. PTSD and TBI co-morbidity: Scope, clinical presentation and treatment options. Brain Inj 2014;28:261–270.Google Scholar
Vanderploeg, RD, Belanger, HG, Curtiss, G. Mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder and their associations with health symptoms. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009;90: 1084–1093.Google Scholar
Lew, HL, Vanderploeg, RD, Moore, DF, Schwab, K, Friedman, L, Yesavage, J, et al. Overlap of mild TBI and mental health conditions in returning OIF/OEF service members and veterans. J Rehabil Res Dev 2008;45:xi–xvi.Google Scholar
Sayer, NA. Traumatic brain injury and its neuropsychiatric sequelae in war veterans. Annu Rev Med 2012;63:405–419.Google Scholar
Schneiderman, AI, Braver, ER, Kang, HK. Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan: Persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:1446–1452.Google Scholar
Brenner, LA, Vanderploe, RD, Terrio, H. Assessment and diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other polytrauma conditions: Burden of adversity hypothesis. Rehab Psychol 2009;54:239–246.Google Scholar
Belanger, HG, Proctor-Weber, Z, Kretzmer, T, Kim, M, French, LM, Vanderploeg, RD. Symptom complaints following reports of blast versus non-blast mild TBI: Does mechanism of injury matter? Clin Neuropsychol 2011;25:702–715.Google Scholar
Sbordone, RJ, Liter, JC. Mild traumatic brain injury does not produce post-traumatic stress disorder. Brain Inj 1995;9: 405–412.Google Scholar
Sbordone, RJ, Ruff, RM. Re-examination of the controversial coexistence of traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: Misdiagnosis and self-report measures. Psychol Inj Law 2010;3:63–76.Google Scholar
Sumpter, RE, McMillan, TM. Misdiagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder following severe traumatic brain injury. Br J Psychiatry 2005;186:423–426.Google Scholar
Mayou, R, Bryant, B, Duthie, R. Psychiatric consequences of road traffic accidents. BMJ 1993;307:647–651.Google Scholar
Middleboe, T, Andersen, HS, Birket-Smith, M, Friis, ML. Minor head injury: Impact on general health after 1 year. A prospective follow-up study. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:5–9.Google Scholar
Warden, DL, Labbate, LA, Salazar, AM, Nelson, R, Sheley, E, Staudenmeier, J, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with traumatic brain injury and amnesia for the event? J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;9:18–22.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG. The influence of traumatic brain injury on acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Brain Inj 1999;13:15–22.Google Scholar
Gil, S, Caspi, Y, Ben-Ari, IZ, Koren, D, Klein, E. Does memory of a traumatic event increase the risk for posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with traumatic brain injury? A prospective study. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:963–969.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, Creamer, M, O’Donnell, M, Silove, D, Clark, CR, Mcfarlane, AC. Post-traumatic amnesia and the nature of post-traumatic stress disorder after mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009;15:862–867.Google Scholar
Carlson, KF, Kehle, SM, Meis, LA, Greer, N, Macdonald, R, Rutks, I, et al. Prevalence, assessment, and treatment of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review of the evidence. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2011;26:103–115.Google Scholar
Betthauser, LM, Bahraini, N, Krengel, MH, Brenner, LA. Self-report measures to identify post traumatic stress disorder and/or mild traumatic brain injury and associated symptoms in military veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Neuropsychol Rev 2012;22:35–53.Google Scholar
Feinstein, A, Hershkop, S, Ouchterlony, D, Jardine, A, Mccullagh, S. Posttraumatic amnesia and recall of a traumatic event following traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14:25–30.Google Scholar
Harvey, AG, Brewin, CR, Jones, C, Kopelman, MD. Coexistence of posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury: Towards a resolution of the paradox. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2003;9:663–676.Google Scholar
Hickling, EJ, Gillen, R, Blanchard, EB, Buckley, T, Taylor, A. Traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary investigation of neuropsychological test results in PTSD secondary to motor vehicle accidents. Brain Inj 1998;12:265–274.Google Scholar
Kennedy, JE, Jaffee, MS, Leskin, GA, Stokes, JW, Leal, FO, Fitzpatrick, PJ. Posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder-like symptoms and mild traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2007;44:895–920.Google Scholar
Lew, HL, Poole, JH, Vanderploeg, RD, Goodrich, GL, Dekelboum, S, Guillory, SB, et al. Program development and defining characteristics of returning military in a VA polytrauma network site. J Rehabil Res Dev 2007;44:1027–1034.Google Scholar
Mayou, RA, Black, J, Bryant, B. Unconsciousness, amnesia and psychiatric symptoms following road traffic accident injury. Br J Psychiatry 2000;177:540–545.Google Scholar
Ohry, A, Rattok, J, Solomon, Z. Post-traumatic stress disorder in brain injury patients. Brain Inj 1996;10:687–695.Google Scholar
Hoge, CW, Mcgurk, D, Thomas, JL, Cox, AL, Engel, CC, Castro, CA. Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med 2008;358:453–463.Google Scholar
King, NS. PTSD and traumatic brain injury: Folklore and fact? Brain Inj 2008;22:1–5.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA. Disentangling mild traumatic brain injury and stress reactions. N Engl J Med 2008;358:525–527.Google Scholar
Chen, Y, Huang, W, Constantini, S. Concepts and strategies for clinical management of blast-induced traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013;25:103–110.Google Scholar
Toth, C. The epidemiology of injuries to the nervous system resulting from sport and recreation. Neurol Clin 2008;26: 1–31, vii.Google Scholar
Daneshvar, DH, Nowinski, CJ, Mckee, AC, Cantu, RC. The epidemiology of sport-related concussion. Clin Sports Med 2011;30:1–17, vii.Google Scholar
Pfister, T, Pfister, K, Hagel, B, Ghali, WA, Ronksley, PE. The incidence of concussion in youth sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2016 50:292–297.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, SL, Kerr, ZY, Yengo-Kahn, A, Wasserman, E, Covassin, T, Solomon, GS. Epidemiology of sports-related concussion in NCAA athletes from 2009–2010 to 2013–2014: Incidence, recurrence, and mechanisms. Am J Sports Med 2015;43:2654–2662.Google Scholar
Delaney, JS, Al-Kashmiri, A, Drummond, R, Correa, JA. The effect of protective headgear on head injuries and concussions in adolescent football (soccer) players. Br J Sports Med 2008;42:110–115; discussion 115.Google Scholar
Delaney, JS, Lacroix, VJ, Leclerc, S, Johnston, KM. Concussions during the 1997 Canadian Football League season. Clin J Sport Med 2000;10:9–14.Google Scholar
Gerberich, SG, Priest, JD, Boen, JR, Straub, CP, Maxwell, RE. Concussion incidences and severity in secondary school varsity football players. Am J Public Health 1983;73:1370–1375.Google Scholar
Kaut, KP, Depompei, R, Kerr, J, Congeni, J. Reports of head injury and symptom knowledge among college athletes: Implications for assessment and educational intervention. Clin J Sport Med 2003;13:213–221.Google Scholar
Meehan, WP, 3rd, Bachur, RG. Sport-related concussion. Pediatrics 2009;123:114–123.Google Scholar
Williamson, IJ, Goodman, D. Converging evidence for the under-reporting of concussions in youth ice hockey. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:128–132; discussion 128–132.Google Scholar
Rowson, S, Duma, SM. Brain injury prediction: Assessing the combined probability of concussion using linear and rotational head acceleration. Ann Biomed Eng 2013;41:873–882.Google Scholar
Buzzini, SR, Guskiewicz, KM. Sport-related concussion in the young athlete. Curr Opin Pediatr 2006;18:376–382.Google Scholar
Valovich McLeod, TC, Bay, RC, Heil, J, Mcveigh, SD. Identification of sport and recreational activity concussion history through the preparticipation screening and a symptom survey in young athletes. Clin J Sport Med 2008;18:235–240.Google Scholar
Delaney, JS, Lacroix, VJ, Leclerc, S, Johnston, KM. Concussions among university football and soccer players. Clin J Sport Med 2002;12:331–338.Google Scholar
Kerr, ZY, Hayden, R, Dompier, TP, Cohen, R. Association of equipment worn and concussion injury rates in National Collegiate Athletic Association football practices: 2004–2005 to 2008–2009 academic years. Am J Sports Med 2015;43:1134–1141.Google Scholar
Buckley, TA, Burdette, G, Kelly, K. Concussion-management practice patterns of National Collegiate Athletic Association division II and III athletic trainers: How the other half lives. J Athl Train 2015;50:879–888.Google Scholar
TopEnd Sports. Ultimate list of the world’s most popular sports. Available at: www.topendsports.com/world/lists/popular-sport/final.htm.Google Scholar
National Council of Youth Sports. Report on trends and participation. NCYS membership survey – 2008 edition. Stuart, FL: National Council of Youth Sports, 2008.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) historical questions. Nutrition, physical activity, and obesity data portal. Available at: https://chronicdata.cdc.gov/browse?category=Nutrition%2C+Physical+Activity%2C+and+ObesityGoogle Scholar
Prevention CFDCA. Behavioral risk factor surveillance system: Exercise. 2006.Google Scholar
Riffkin, R. So far in 2015, more Americans exercising frequently. 2015. www.gallup.com/poll/184403/far-2015-americans-exercising-frequently.aspx.Google Scholar
Physical Activity Council. Participation report. 2017. Available at www.physicalactivitycouncil.com/PDFs/current.pdf.Google Scholar
Collins, MW, Iverson, GL, Lovell, MR, Mckeag, DB, Norwig, J, Maroon, J. On-field predictors of neuropsychological and symptom deficit following sports-related concussion. Clin J Sport Med 2003;13:222–229.Google Scholar
Schulz, MR, Marshall, SW, Mueller, FO, Yang, J, Weaver, NL, Kalsbeek, WD, et al. Incidence and risk factors for concussion in high school athletes, North Carolina, 1996–1999. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:937–944.Google Scholar
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. CDC injury research agenda, 2009–2018. 2009. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/21769.Google Scholar
Jinguji, TM, Krabak, BJ, Satchell, EK. Epidemiology of youth sports concussion. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2011;22:565–575, vii.Google Scholar
Grady, MF. Concussion in the adolescent athlete. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2010;40:154–169.Google Scholar
Lovell, MR, Collins, MW, Iverson, GL, Johnston, KM, Bradley, JP. Grade 1 or “ding” concussions in high school athletes. Am J Sports Med 2004;32:47–54.Google Scholar
Mcclincy, MP, Lovell, MR, Pardini, J, Collins, MW, Spore, MK. Recovery from sports concussion in high school and collegiate athletes. Brain Inj 2006;20:33–39.Google Scholar
Sim, A, Terryberry-Spohr, L, Wilson, KR. Prolonged recovery of memory functioning after mild traumatic brain injury in adolescent athletes. J Neurosurg 2008;108:511–516.Google Scholar
Webbe, FM, Ochs, SR. Recency and frequency of soccer heading interact to decrease neurocognitive performance. Appl Neuropsychol 2003;10:31–41.Google Scholar
Field, M, Collins, MW, Lovell, MR, Maroon, J. Does age play a role in recovery from sports-related concussion? A comparison of high school and collegiate athletes. J Pediatr 2003;142:546–553.Google Scholar
Makdissi, M, Davis, G, Jordan, B, Patricios, J, Purcell, L, Putukian, M. Revisiting the modifiers: How should the evaluation and management of acute concussions differ in specific groups? Br J Sports Med 2013;47:314–320.Google Scholar
Covassin, T, Elbin, RJ, Harris, W, Parker, T, Kontos, A. The role of age and sex in symptoms, neurocognitive performance, and postural stability in athletes after concussion. Am J Sports Med. 2012;40:1303–1312.Google Scholar
Lee, YM, Odom, MJ, Zuckerman, SL, Solomon, GS, Sills, AK. Does age affect symptom recovery after sports-related concussion? A study of high school and college athletes. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2013;12:537–544.Google Scholar
Gessel, LM, Fields, SK, Collins, CL, Dick, RW, Comstock, RD. Concussions among United States high school and collegiate athletes. J Athl Train 2007;42:495–503.Google Scholar
Foley, C, Gregory, A, Solomon, G. Young age as a modifying factor in sports concussion management: What is the evidence? Curr Sports Med Rep 2014;13:390–394.Google Scholar
McDonald, JW, Johnston, MV. Physiological and pathophysiological roles of excitatory amino acids during central nervous system development. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 1990;15:41–70.Google Scholar
Fan, P, Yamauchi, T, Noble, LJ, Ferriero, DM. Age-dependent differences in glutathione peroxidase activity after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2003;20:437–445.Google Scholar
Covassin, T, Swanik, CB, Sachs, ML. Sex differences and the incidence of concussions among collegiate athletes. J Athl Train 2003;38:238–244.Google Scholar
Dick, RW. Is there a gender difference in concussion incidence and outcomes? Br J Sports Med 2009;43(Suppl 1):146–150.Google Scholar
Powell, JW, Barber-Foss, KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA 1999;282:958–963.Google Scholar
Broshek, DK, Kaushik, T, Freeman, JR, Erlanger, D, Webbe, F, Barth, JT. Sex differences in outcome following sports-related concussion. J Neurosurg 2005;102:856–863.Google Scholar
Covassin, T, Schatz, P, Swanik, CB. Sex differences in neuropsychological function and post-concussion symptoms of concussed collegiate athletes. Neurosurgery 2007;61:345–350; discussion 350–351.Google Scholar
Covassin, T, Swanik, CB, Sachs, M, Kendrick, Z, Schatz, P, Zillmer, E, et al. Sex differences in baseline neuropsychological function and concussion symptoms of collegiate athletes. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:923–927; discussion 927.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, SL, Apple, RP, Odom, MJ, Lee, YM, Solomon, GS, Sills, AK. Effect of sex on symptoms and return to baseline in sport-related concussion. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2014;13:72–81.Google Scholar
Didi-Huberman, G. Invention of hysteria: Charcot and the photographic iconography of the Salpêtrière. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Gomes Mda, M, Engelhardt, E. Hysteria to conversion disorders: Babinski’s contributions. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2014;72: 318–321.Google Scholar
Micale, MS. Charcot and Les névroses traumatiques: scientific and historical reflections. J Hist Neurosci 1995;4:101–119.Google Scholar
Wunderle, K, Hoeger, KM, Wasserman, E, Bazarian, JJ. Menstrual phase as predictor of outcome after mild traumatic brain injury in women. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014;29:e1–e8.Google Scholar
Hsu, HL, Chen, DY, Tseng, YC, Kuo, YS, Huang, YL, Chiu, WT, et al. Sex differences in working memory after mild traumatic brain injury: A functional MR imaging study. Radiology 2015;276:828–835.Google Scholar
Hootman, JM, Dick, R, Agel, J. Epidemiology of collegiate injuries for 15 sports: Summary and recommendations for injury prevention initiatives. J Athl Train 2007;42:311–319.Google Scholar
Gilchrist, J. Nonfatal traumatic brain injuries related to sports and recreation activities among persons aged≤ 19 years – United States, 2001–2009. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011;60:1337–1342.Google Scholar
Lincoln, AE, Caswell, SV, Almquist, JL, Dunn, RE, Norris, JB, Hinton, RY. Trends in concussion incidence in high school sports: A prospective 11-year study. Am J Sports Med 2011;39:958–963.Google Scholar
Marar, M, Mcilvain, NM, Fields, SK, Comstock, RD. Epidemiology of concussions among United States high school athletes in 20 sports. Am J Sports Med 2012;40:747–755.Google Scholar
Green, GA, Pollack, KM, D’Angelo, J, Schickendantz, MS, Caplinger, R, Weber, K, et al. Mild traumatic brain injury in major and minor league baseball players. Am J Sports Med 2015;43: 1118–1126.Google Scholar
Bledsoe, GH, Li, G, Levy, F. Injury risk in professional boxing. South Med J 2005;98:994–998.Google Scholar
Shields, BJ, Smith, GA. Cheerleading-related injuries in the United States: A prospective surveillance study. J Athl Train 2009;44:567–577.Google Scholar
Kontos, AP, Elbin, RJ, Fazio-Sumrock, VC, Burkhart, S, Swindell, H, Maroon, J, et al. Incidence of sports-related concussion among youth football players aged 8–12 years. J Pediatr 2013;163:717–720.Google Scholar
Koh, JO, Cassidy, JD, Watkinson, EJ. Incidence of concussion in contact sports: A systematic review of the evidence. Brain Inj 2003;17:901–917.Google Scholar
Pellman, EJ, Powell, JW, Viano, DC, Casson, IR, Tucker, AM, Feuer, H, et al. Concussion in professional football: Epidemiological features of game injuries and review of the literature – Part 3. Neurosurgery 2004;54:81–94; discussion 94–96.Google Scholar
Marshall, SW, Covassin, T, Dick, R, Nassar, LG, Agel, J. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women’s gymnastics injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988–1989 through 2003–2004. J Athl Train 2007;42:234–240.Google Scholar
Decloe, MD, Meeuwisse, WH, Hagel, BE, Emery, CA. Injury rates, types, mechanisms and risk factors in female youth ice hockey. Br J Sports Med 2014;48:51–56.Google Scholar
Abbott, K. Injuries in women’s ice hockey: Special considerations. Curr Sports Med Rep 2014;13:377–382.Google Scholar
Tommasone, BA, Valovich McLeod, TC. Contact sport concussion incidence. J Athl Train 2006;41:470–472.Google Scholar
Echlin, PS, Tator, CH, Cusimano, MD, Cantu, RC, Taunton, JE, Upshur, RE, et al. A prospective study of physician-observed concussions during junior ice hockey: Implications for incidence rates. Neurosurg Focus 2010;29:E4.Google Scholar
Agel, J, Dick, R, Nelson, B, Marshall, SW, Dompier, TP. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women’s ice hockey injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 2000–2001 through 2003–2004. J Athl Train 2007;42:249–254.Google Scholar
Echlin, PS, Skopelja, EN, Worsley, R, Dadachanji, SB, Lloyd-Smith, DR, Taunton, JA, et al. A prospective study of physician-observed concussion during a varsity university ice hockey season: Incidence and neuropsychological changes. Part 2 of 4. Neurosurg Focus 2012;33(E2): 1–11.Google Scholar
Dryden, DM, Francescutti, LH, Rowe, BH, Spence, JC, Voaklander, DC. Epidemiology of women’s recreational ice hockey injuries. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000;32:1378–1383.Google Scholar
Hinton, RY, Lincoln, AE, Almquist, JL, Douoguih, WA, Sharma, KM. Epidemiology of lacrosse injuries in high school-aged girls and boys: A 3-year prospective study. Am J Sports Med 2005;33:1305–1314.Google Scholar
Xiang, J, Collins, CL, Liu, D, McKenzie, LB, Comstock, RD. Lacrosse injuries among high school boys and girls in the United States: Academic years 2008–2009 through 2011–2012. Am J Sports Med 2014;42:2082–2088.Google Scholar
Dick, R, Lincoln, AE, Agel, J, Carter, EA, Marshall, SW, Hinton, RY. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women’s lacrosse injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988–1989 through 2003–2004. J Athl Train 2007;42:262–269.Google Scholar
Butterwick, DJ, Hagel, B, Nelson, DS, Lefave, MR, Meeuwisse, WH. Epidemiologic analysis of injury in five years of Canadian professional rodeo. Am J Sports Med 2002;30:193–198.Google Scholar
Meyers, MC, Laurent, CM, Jr. The rodeo athlete: Injuries – Part II. Sports Med 2010;40:817–839.Google Scholar
Marshall, SW, Spencer, RJ. Concussion in rugby: The hidden epidemic. J Athl Train 2001;36:334–338.Google Scholar
Marshall, SW, Hamstra-Wright, KL, Dick, R, Grove, KA, Agel, J. Descriptive epidemiology of collegiate women’s softball injuries: National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance System, 1988–1989 through 2003–2004. J Athl Train 2007;42:286–294.Google Scholar
Pieter, W, Zemper, ED. Head and neck injuries in young taekwondo athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1999;39: 147–153.Google Scholar
Larson, AN, Mcintosh, AL. The epidemiology of injury in ATV and motocross sports. Med Sport Sci 2012;58:158–172.Google Scholar
Luo, TD, Clarke, MJ, Zimmerman, AK, Quinn, M, Daniels, DJ, Mcintosh, AL. Concussion symptoms in youth motocross riders: A prospective, observational study. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2015;15:255–260.Google Scholar
Wasserman, EB, Abar, B, Shah, MN, Wasserman, D, Bazarian, JJ. Concussions are associated with decreased batting performance among major league baseball players. Am J Sports Med 2015;43:1127–1133.Google Scholar
Keeney, T. Pacquiao vs. Algieri results: Winner, recap and prize money split. 2014. Available at http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2277216-pacquiao-vs-algieri-results-winner-recap-and-prize-money-split.Google Scholar
Forstl, H, Haass, C, Hemmer, B, Meyer, B, Halle, M. Boxing-acute complications and late sequelae: From concussion to dementia. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2010;107:835–839.Google Scholar
Jordan, BD, Relkin, NR, Ravdin, LD, Jacobs, AR, Bennett, A, Gandy, S. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 associated with chronic traumatic brain injury in boxing. JAMA 1997;278:136–140.Google Scholar
Bianco, M, Pannozzo, A, Fabbricatore, C, Sanna, N, Moscetti, M, Palmieri, V, et al. Medical survey of female boxing in Italy in 2002–2003. Br J Sports Med 2005;39:532–536.Google Scholar
Bianco, M, Sanna, N, Bucari, S, Fabiano, C, Palmieri, V, Zeppilli, P. Female boxing in Italy: 2002–2007 report. Br J Sports Med 2011;45:563–570.Google Scholar
Statista. Number of participants in cheerleading in the United States from 2006 to 2013 (in millions). www.statista.com/statistics/191651/participants-in-cheerleading-in-the-us-since-2006/.Google Scholar
Anonymous. Cheerleader continues cheering after breaking neck. ESPN/Associated Press photo, March 6, 2006. Available at www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/news/story?id=2356442.Google Scholar
Schulz, MR, Marshall, SW, Yang, J, Mueller, FO, Weaver, NL, Bowling, JM. A prospective cohort study of injury incidence and risk factors in North Carolina high school competitive cheerleaders. Am J Sports Med 2004;32:396–405.Google Scholar
Shields, BJ, Smith, GA. Epidemiology of cheerleading fall-related injuries in the United States. J Athl Train 2009;44:578–585.Google Scholar
Shields, BJ, Fernandez, SA, Smith, GA. Epidemiology of cheerleading stunt-related injuries in the United States. J Athl Train 2009;44:586–594.Google Scholar
Labella, CR, Mjaanes, J, Fitness COSMA. Cheerleading injuries: Epidemiology and recommendations for prevention. Pediatrics 2012;130:966–971.Google Scholar
Archer, P, Mallonee, S, Lantis, S. Horseback-riding-associated traumatic brain injuries – Oklahoma, 1992–1994. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 1996;275:1072.Google Scholar
Wall, SE, Williams, WH, Cartwright-Hatton, S, Kelly, TP, Murray, J, Murray, M, et al. Neuropsychological dysfunction following repeat concussions in jockeys. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2006;77:518–520.Google Scholar
National Federation of State High School Associations. High school athletics participation survey. 2011–2012. www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=3282.Google Scholar
Bushman, BJ, Anderson, CA. Comfortably numb: Desensitizing effects of violent media on helping others. Psychol Sci 2009;20:273–277.Google Scholar
Carnagey, NL, Anderson, CA, Bushman, BJ. The effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence. J Exp Soc Psychol 2007;43:489–496.Google Scholar
Rhoden, W. Numb to violence? Fans, maybe, but not players. N Y Times 2014; January 21.Google Scholar
Thomas, MH, Horton, RW, Lippincott, EC, Drabman, RS. Desensitization to portrayals of real-life aggression as a function of exposure to television violence. J Pers Soc Psychol 1977;35:450–458.Google Scholar
Kain, DJ. It’s just a concussion: The National Football League’s denial of a casual link between multiple concussions and later-life cognitive decline. Rutgers LJ 2008;40:697.Google Scholar
Stern, Declaration of Robert A, Civil action no. 2:14-cv-00029-AB.Google Scholar
Almond, S. The NFL gets off easy in concussion settlement. Boston Globe 2014 June 27.Google Scholar
Giliberti, V, Osnato, M. Postconcussion neurosis-traumatic encephalitis: A conception of postconcussion phenomena. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1927;18:181.Google Scholar
Martland, HS. Punch drunk. JAMA 1928;91:1103–1107.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Public Health Service syphilis study at Tuskegee. 2017. Available at www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm.Google Scholar
Pellman, EJ, Viano, DC, Tucker, AM, Casson, IR, Committee on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury NFL. Concussion in professional football: Location and direction of helmet impacts – Part 2. Neurosurgery 2003;53:1328–1340; discussion 1340–1341.Google Scholar
Pellman, EJ, Viano, DC, Tucker, AM, Casson, IR, Waeckerle, JF. Concussion in professional football: Reconstruction of game impacts and injuries. Neurosurgery 2003;53:799–812; discussion 812–814.Google Scholar
Zhang, L, Yang, KH, King, AI. A proposed injury threshold for mild traumatic brain injury. J Biomech Eng 2004;126:226–236.Google Scholar
Funk, JR, Duma, SM, Manoogian, SJ, Rowson, S. Biomechanical risk estimates for mild traumatic brain injury. Annu Proc Assoc Adv Automot Med 2007;51:343–361.Google Scholar
Beckwith, JG, Greenwald, RM, Chu, JJ. Measuring head kinematics in football: Correlation between the head impact telemetry system and Hybrid III headform. Ann Biomed Eng 2012;40:237–248.Google Scholar
Rowson, S, Duma, SM. Development of the STAR evaluation system for football helmets: Integrating player head impact exposure and risk of concussion. Ann Biomed Eng 2011;39:2130–2140.Google Scholar
Beckwith, JG, Greenwald, RM, Chu, JJ, Crisco, JJ, Rowson, S, Duma, SM, et al. Head impact exposure sustained by football players on days of diagnosed concussion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013;45:737–746.Google Scholar
Urban, JE, Davenport, EM, Golman, AJ, Maldjian, JA, Whitlow, CT, Powers, AK, et al. Head impact exposure in youth football: high school ages 14 to 18 years and cumulative impact analysis. Ann Biomed Eng 2013;41:2474–2487.Google Scholar
Crisco, JJ, Wilcox, BJ, Beckwith, JG, Chu, JJ, Duhaime, AC, Rowson, S, et al. Head impact exposure in collegiate football players. J Biomech 2011;44:2673–2678.Google Scholar
Crisco, JJ, Wilcox, BJ, Machan, JT, McAllister, TW, Duhaime, AC, Duma, SM, et al. Magnitude of head impact exposures in individual collegiate football players. J Appl Biomech 2012;28:174–183.Google Scholar
Funk, JR, Rowson, S, Daniel, RW, Duma, SM. Validation of concussion risk curves for collegiate football players derived from HITS data. Ann Biomed Eng 2012;40:79–89.Google Scholar
Mihalik, JP, Bell, DR, Marshall, SW, Guskiewicz, KM. Measurement of head impacts in collegiate football players: An investigation of positional and event-type differences. Neurosurgery 2007;61:1229–1235; discussion 1235.Google Scholar
Broglio, SP, Eckner, JT, Surma, T, Kutcher, JS. Post-concussion cognitive declines and symptomatology are not related to concussion biomechanics in high school football players. J Neurotrauma 2011;28:2061–2068.Google Scholar
Daniel, RW, Rowson, S, Duma, SM. Head impact exposure in youth football: middle school ages 12–14 years. J Biomech Eng 2014;136:094501.Google Scholar
Zemper, ED. Two-year prospective study of relative risk of a second cerebral concussion. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2003;82:653–659.Google Scholar
Duhaime, AC, Beckwith, JG, Maerlender, AC, McAllister, TW, Crisco, JJ, Duma, SM, et al. Spectrum of acute clinical characteristics of diagnosed concussions in college athletes wearing instrumented helmets: Clinical article. J Neurosurg 2012;117:1092–1099.Google Scholar
McAllister, TW, Ford, JC, Flashman, LA, Maerlender, A, Greenwald, RM, Beckwith, JG, et al. Effect of head impacts on diffusivity measures in a cohort of collegiate contact sport athletes. Neurology 2014;82:63–69.Google Scholar
Davenport, EM, Whitlow, CT, Urban, JE, Espeland, MA, Jung, Y, Rosenbaum, DA, et al. Abnormal white matter integrity related to head impact exposure in a season of high school varsity football. J Neurotrauma 2014;31:1617–1624.Google Scholar
McKee, A. Interview by Tom Goldman T. National Public Radio; All things considered, July 25th 2017. Available at www.npr.org/2017/07/25/539198429/study-cte-found-in-nearly-all-donated-nfl-player-brains.Google Scholar
Corsellis, J, Bruton, C, Freeman-Browne, D. The aftermath of boxing. Psychol Med 1973 3:270–303.Google Scholar
Hof, PR, Knabe, R, Bovier, P, Bouras, C. Neuropathological observations in a case of autism presenting with self-injury behaviour. Acta Neuropathol 1991;82:321–326.Google Scholar
Geddes, JF, Vowles, GH, Robinson, SFD, Sutcliffe, JC. Neurofibrillary tangles, but not Alzheimer-type pathology, in a young boxer. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1996;22:12–16.Google Scholar
Bonfield, CM, Wecht, DA, Lunsford, LD. Concussion in ice hockey. Prog Neurol Surg 2014;28:161–170.Google Scholar
Roberts, WO, Brust, JD, Leonard, B. Youth ice hockey tournament injuries: Rates and patterns compared to season play. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31:46–51.Google Scholar
Forward, KE, Seabrook, JA, Lynch, T, Lim, R, Poonai, N, Sangha, GS. A comparison of the epidemiology of ice hockey injuries between male and female youth in Canada. Paediatr Child Health 2014;19:418–422.Google Scholar
Wilcox, BJ, Machan, JT, Beckwith, JG, Greenwald, RM, Burmeister, E, Crisco, JJ. Head-impact mechanisms in men’s and women’s collegiate ice hockey. J Athl Train 2014;49:514–520.Google Scholar
Berkman, B. Women’s hockey grows bigger, faster and dire. N Y Times 2015 December 18.Google Scholar
Emery, CA, Kang, J, Shrier, I, Goulet, C, Hagel, BE, Benson, BW, et al. Risk of injury associated with body checking among youth ice hockey players. JAMA 2010;303:2265–2272.Google Scholar
Allison, MA, Kang, YS, Maltese, MR, Bolte, JHT, Arbogast, KB. Measurement of Hybrid III head impact kinematics using an accelerometer and gyroscope system in ice hockey helmets. Ann Biomed Eng 2015;43:1896–1906.Google Scholar
Wilcox, BJ, Beckwith, JG, Greenwald, RM, Raukar, NP, Chu, JJ, McAllister, TW, et al. Biomechanics of head impacts associated with diagnosed concussion in female collegiate ice hockey players. J Biomech 2015;48:2201–2204.Google Scholar
Koerte, IK, Kaufmann, D, Hartl, E, Bouix, S, Pasternak, O, Kubicki, M, et al. A prospective study of physician-observed concussion during a varsity university hockey season: White matter integrity in ice hockey players. Part 3 of 4. Neurosurg Focus 2012;33 (E3):1–7.Google Scholar
Helmer, KG, Pasternak, O, Fredman, E, Preciado, RI, Koerte, IK, Sasaki, T, et al. Hockey Concussion Education Project, part 1. Susceptibility-weighted imaging study in male and female ice hockey players over a single season. J Neurosurg 2014;120: 864–872.Google Scholar
Sasaki, T, Pasternak, O, Mayinger, M, Muehlmann, M, Savadjiev, P, Bouix, S, et al. Hockey Concussion Education Project, part 3. White matter microstructure in ice hockey players with a history of concussion: A diffusion tensor imaging study. J Neurosurg 2014;120:882–890.Google Scholar
Fife, GP, O’Sullivan, D, Pieter, W. Biomechanics of head injury in Olympic taekwondo and boxing. Biol Sport 2013;30:263–268.Google Scholar
Frankland, N. Holly Holm stuns Ronda Rousey with shocking KO. Boston Globe 2015 November 16, www.bostonglobe.com/sports/2015/11/15/holly-holm-stuns-ronda-rousey-with-round-knockout/Ahf4xzPEwTrx29NM2jxQPL/story.html.Google Scholar
Hutchison, MG, Lawrence, DW, Cusimano, MD, Schweizer, TA. Head trauma in mixed martial arts. Am J Sports Med 2014;42: 1352–1358.Google Scholar
Cleveland Clinic Lou Ruvo Center for Brain Health. Preliminary findings: Professional fighters brain health study. 2016. http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/neurological_institute/lou-ruvo-brain-health/clinical-trials-research/research?utm_campaign=fighterstudy-url&utm_medium=offline&utm_source=redirect.Google Scholar
Brandenburg, MA, Butterwick, DJ, Hiemstra, LA, Nebergall, R, Laird, J. A comparison of injury rates in organised sports, with special emphasis on American bull riding. Int Sport Med J 2007;8.Google Scholar
Mountain High Broncs and Bulls. Wild horse racing history. www.mountainhighrodeo.com/home/wild-horse-race-history/.Google Scholar
Lustenberger, T, Talving, P, Barmparas, G, Schnuriger, B, Lam, L, Inaba, K, et al. Skateboard-related injuries: Not to be taken lightly. A National Trauma Databank Analysis. J Trauma 2010;69:924–927.Google Scholar
Schieber, RA, Olson, SJ. Developing a culture of safety in a reluctant audience. West J Med 2002;176:e1–e2.Google Scholar
Diamond, PT, Gale, SD, Denkhaus, HK. Head injuries in skiers: An analysis of injury severity and outcome. Brain Inj 2001;15:429–434.Google Scholar
Meyers, MC, Laurent, CM, Jr., Higgins, RW, Skelly, WA. Downhill ski injuries in children and adolescents. Sports Med 2007;37:485–499.Google Scholar
Sulheim, S, Holme, I, Ekeland, A, Bahr, R. Helmet use and risk of head injuries in alpine skiers and snowboarders. JAMA 2006;295:919–924.Google Scholar
Russell, K, Christie, J, Hagel, BE. The effect of helmets on the risk of head and neck injuries among skiers and snowboarders: A meta-analysis. CMAJ 2010;182:333–340.Google Scholar
FIFA. FIFA big count. 2007. www.fifa.com/worldfootball/bigcount/allplayers.html.Google Scholar
Spiotta, AM, Bartsch, AJ, Benzel, EC. Heading in soccer: Dangerous play? Neurosurgery 2012;70:1–11.Google Scholar
Matser, JT, Kessels, AG, Lezak, MD, Troost, J. A dose–response relation of headers and concussions with cognitive impairment in professional soccer players. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2001;23:770–774.Google Scholar
Rutherford, A, Stephens, R, Potter, D, Fernie, G. Neuropsychological impairment as a consequence of football (soccer) play and football heading: Preliminary analyses and report on university footballers. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2005;27:299–319.Google Scholar
Rieder, C, Jansen, P. No neuropsychological consequence in male and female soccer players after a short heading training. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2011;26:583–591.Google Scholar
Rutherford, A, Stephens, R, Fernie, G, Potter, D. Do UK university football club players suffer neuropsychological impairment as a consequence of their football (soccer) play? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2009;31:664–681.Google Scholar
Straume-Naesheim, TM, Andersen, TE, Dvorak, J, Bahr, R. Effects of heading exposure and previous concussions on neuropsychological performance among Norwegian elite footballers. Br J Sports Med 2005;39(Suppl 1):i70–i77.Google Scholar
Stalnacke, BM, Tegner, Y, Sojka, P. Playing soccer increases serum concentrations of the biochemical markers of brain damage S-100B and neuron-specific enolase in elite players: A pilot study. Brain Inj 2004;18:899–909.Google Scholar
Stalnacke, BM, Ohlsson, A, Tegner, Y, Sojka, P. Serum concentrations of two biochemical markers of brain tissue damage S-100B and neurone specific enolase are increased in elite female soccer players after a competitive game. Br J Sports Med 2006;40:313–316.Google Scholar
Zetterberg, H, Jonsson, M, Rasulzada, A, Popa, C, Styrud, E, Hietala, MA, et al. No neurochemical evidence for brain injury caused by heading in soccer. Br J Sports Med 2007;41:574–577.Google Scholar
Lipton, ML, Kim, N, Zimmerman, ME, Kim, M, Stewart, WF, Branch, CA, et al. Soccer heading is associated with white matter microstructural and cognitive abnormalities. Radiology 2013;268:850–857.Google Scholar
National Federation of State High School Associations. High school athletics participation survey. 2014–2015. www. nfhs.org/ParticipationStatics/ParticipationStatics.aspx/.Google Scholar
Myers, RJ, Linakis, SW, Mello, MJ, Linakis, JG. Competitive wrestling-related injuries in school aged athletes in U.S. emergency departments. West J Emerg Med 2010;11:442–449.Google Scholar
Olesen, J, Gustavsson, A, Svensson, M, Wittchen, HU, Jonsson, B, Group, CS, et al. The economic cost of brain disorders in Europe. Eur J Neurol 2012;19:155–162.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×