Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-p2v8j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-30T19:59:43.491Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

5 - What Happens to Concussed Humans?

from Part I - What Is a Concussion?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 February 2019

Jeff Victoroff
Affiliation:
University of Southern California, Torrance
Erin D. Bigler
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University, Utah
Get access

Summary

Chapters 5 and 7 of this textbook might be regarded as complementary sides of the same coin. The need for a comprehensive reconceptualization of concussion became apparent early in the twenty-first century due to the striking disparities between observations made by different domains of inquiry (e.g., clinical practice versus neuropsychology versus neuroimaging). Two frames would both seem valid: one wants to know what typical, medically attended concussive brain injuries (CBIs) do to humans. That is, does CBI exhibit a specific biological or clinical profile across human natures? That is the head of the coin discussed in the present chapter. At the same time, it is self-evident that humans display many individual differences in genes, biology, and behavior, such that one could not realistically expect a universal effect of a blow to the head. That other side of the coin, why outcomes vary, is addressed in Chapter 7.
Type
Chapter
Information
Concussion and Traumatic Encephalopathy
Causes, Diagnosis and Management
, pp. 205 - 258
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Schretlen, DJ, Shapiro, AM. A quantitative review of the effects of traumatic brain injury on cognitive functioning. Int Rev Psychiatry 2003; 15: 341–9.Google Scholar
Symonds, C. Concussion and its sequelae. Lancet 1962; 279: 15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blennow, K, Hardy, J, Zetterberg, H. The neuropathology and neurobiology of traumatic brain injury. Neuron 2012; 76: 886–99.Google Scholar
Jennett, B, Snoek, J, Bond, MR, Brooks, N. Disability after severe head injury: observations on the use of the Glasgow Outcome Scale. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1981; 44: 285–93.Google Scholar
Pettigrew, LE, Wilson, JT, Teasdale, GM. Assessing disability after head injury: improved use of the Glasgow Outcome Scale. J Neurosurg 1998; 89: 939–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, JT, Pettigrew, LE, Teasdale, GM. Structured interviews for the Glasgow Outcome Scale and the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale: guidelines for their use. J Neurotrauma 1998; 15: 573–85.Google Scholar
Halbauer, JD, Ashford, JW, Zeitzer, JM, Adamson, MM, Lew, HL, Yesavage, JA. Neuropsychiatric diagnosis and management of chronic sequelae of war-related mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Res Dev 2009; 46: 757–96.Google Scholar
Bruce, ED, Konda, S, Dean, DD, Wang, EW, Huang, JH, Little, DM. Neuroimaging and traumatic brain injury: state of the field and voids in translational knowledge. Mol Cell Neurosci 2015; 66: 103113.Google Scholar
Demakis, GJ, Hammond, FM, Knotts, A. Prediction of depression and anxiety 1 year after moderate-severe traumatic brain injury. Appl Neuropsychol 2010; 17: 183–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willis, T. Cerebri anatome cui accessit nervorum descriptio et usus. London: James Flesher, Joseph Martyn, and James Allestry, 1664.Google Scholar
Garrod, AE. The Croonian lectures on inborn errors of metabolism. Delivered before the Royal College of Physicians on June 18th, 23rd, 25th, and 30th. Lancet 1908; 172(4427): 17; 172(4428): 7379; 172(4429): 142148; 172(4430): 214230.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA. Disentangling mild traumatic brain injury and stress reactions. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 525–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weaver, IC. Integrating early life experience, gene expression, brain development, and emergent phenotypes: unraveling the thread of nature via nurture. Adv Genet 2014; 86: 277307.Google Scholar
Weaver, IC. Epigenetics: integrating genetic programs, brain development and emergent phenotypes. Cell Dev Biol 2014; 3: 111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, SM, Chau, A, Portelli, JN, Grafman, J. Genetic polymorphisms influence recovery from traumatic brain injury. Neuroscientist 2012; 18: 631–44.Google Scholar
Reitan, RM, Wolfson, D. The two faces of mild head injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1999; 14: 191202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iverson, GL, Binder, LM. Detecting exaggeration and malingering in neuropsychological assessment. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2000; 15: 829–58.Google Scholar
Kashluba, S, Paniak, C, Blake, T, Reynolds, S, Toller-Lobe, G, Nagy, J. A longitudinal, controlled study of patient complaints following treated mild traumatic brain injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2004; 19: 805–16.Google Scholar
Frencham, KA, Fox, AM, Maybery, MT. Neuropsychological studies of mild traumatic brain injury: a meta-analytic review of research since 1995. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2005; 27: 334–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iverson, GL. Outcome from mild traumatic brain injury. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2005; 18: 301–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hall, RC, Hall, RC, Chapman, MJ. Definition, diagnosis, and forensic implications of postconcussional syndrome. Psychosomatics 2005; 46: 195202.Google Scholar
Belanger, HG, Vanderploeg, RD. The neuropsychological impact of sports-related concussion: a meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11: 345–57.Google Scholar
Belanger, HG, Curtiss, G, Demery, JA, Lebowitz, BK, Vanderploeg, RD. Factors moderating neuropsychological outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11: 215–27.Google Scholar
Ruff, R. Best practice guidelines for forensic neuropsychological examinations of patients with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009; 24: 131–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boone, KB. The need for continuous and comprehensive sampling of effort/response bias during neuropsychological examinations. Clin Neuropsychol 2009; 23: 729–41.Google Scholar
Tellier, A, Marshall, SC, Wilson, KG, Smith, A, Perugini, M, Stiell, IG. The heterogeneity of mild traumatic brain injury: where do we stand? Brain Inj 2009; 23: 879–87.Google Scholar
Binder, LM, Rohling, ML, Larrabee, GJ. A review of mild head trauma. Part I: Meta-analytic review of neuropsychological studies. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1997; 19: 421–31.Google Scholar
Rohling, ML, Binder, LM, Demakis, GJ, Larrabee, GJ, Ploetz, DM, Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. A meta-analysis of neuropsychological outcome after mild traumatic brain injury: re-analyses and reconsiderations of Binder et al. (1997), Frencham et al. (2005), and Pertab et al. (2009). Clin Neuropsychol 2011; 25: 608–23.Google Scholar
Rohling, ML, Larrabee, GJ, Millis, SR. The “Miserable Minority” following mild traumatic brain injury: who are they and do meta-analyses hide them? Clin Neuropsychol 2012; 26: 197213.Google Scholar
Larrabee, GJ, Binder, LM, Rohling, ML, Ploetz, DM. Meta-analytic methods and the importance of non-TBI factors related to outcome in mild traumatic brain injury: response to Bigler et al. (2013). Clin Neuropsychol 2013; 27: 215–37.Google Scholar
Waldron-Perrine, B, Hennrick, H, Spencer, RJ, Pangilinan, PH, Bieliauskas, LA. Postconcussive symptom report in polytrauma: influence of mild traumatic brain injury and psychiatric distress. Milit Med 2014; 179: 856–64.Google Scholar
Rimel, RW, Giordani, B, Barth, JT, Boll, TJ, Jane, JA. Disability caused by minor head injury. Neurosurgery 1981; 9: 221–8.Google Scholar
Slobounov, S, Gay, M, Johnson, B, Zhang, K. Concussion in athletics: ongoing clinical and brain imaging research controversies. Brain Imaging Behav 2012; 6: 224–43.Google Scholar
Denker, P. The postconcussion syndrome: prognosis and evaluation of the organic factors. NY State J Med 1944; 44: 379–84.Google Scholar
Klein, M, Houx, PJ, Jolles, J. Long-term persisting cognitive sequelae of traumatic brain injury and the effect of age. J Nerv Ment Dis 1996; 184: 459–67.Google Scholar
Cicerone, KD. Attention deficits and dual task demands after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 1996; 10: 7989.Google Scholar
Ewing, R, Mccarthy, D, Gronwall, D, Wrightson, P. Persisting effects of minor head injury observable during hypoxic stress. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1980; 2: 147–55.Google Scholar
Temme, L, Bleiberg, J, Reeves, D, Still, DL, Levinson, D, Browning, R. Uncovering latent deficits due to mild traumatic brain injury by using normobaric hypoxia stress. Front Neurol 2013; 4: 41.Google Scholar
Kelly, G. Personal construct psychology. New York: Norton, 1955.Google Scholar
Holbrook, C, Sousa, P, Hahn-Holbrook, J. Unconscious vigilance: worldview defense without adaptations for terror, coalition, or uncertainty management. J Pers Soc Psychol 2011; 101: 451–66.Google Scholar
Mcgregor, I, Zanna, MP, Holmes, JG, Spencer, SJ. Compensatory conviction in the face of personal uncertainty: going to extremes and being oneself. J Pers Soc Psychol 2001; 80: 472–88.Google Scholar
Teuber, H-L. Neglected aspects of the posttraumatic syndrome. In Walker, AE, Caveness, WF, Critchley, M, editors. Late effects of head injury. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1969, pp. 1334.Google Scholar
Rubovitch, V, Ten-Bosch, M, Zohar, O, Harrison, CR, Tempel-Brami, C, Stein, E, et al. A mouse model of blast-induced mild traumatic brain injury. Exp Neurol 2011; 232: 280–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sasse, N, Gibbons, H, Wilson, L, Martinez-Olivera, R, Schmidt, H, Hasselhorn, M, et al. Self-awareness and health-related quality of life after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2013; 28: 464–72.Google Scholar
Hall, KM, Bushnik, T, Lakisic-Kazazic, B, Wright, J, Cantagallo, A. Assessing traumatic brain injury outcome measures for long-term follow-up of community-based individuals. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 82: 367–74.Google Scholar
Hudak, AM, Caesar, RR, Frol, AB, Krueger, K, Harper, CR, Temkin, NR, et al. Functional outcome scales in traumatic brain injury: a comparison of the Glasgow Outcome Scale (Extended) and the Functional Status Examination. J Neurotrauma 2005; 22: 1319–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nichol, AD, Higgins, AM, Gabbe, BJ, Murray, LJ, Cooper, DJ, Cameron, PA. Measuring functional and quality of life outcomes following major head injury: common scales and checklists. Injury 2011; 42: 281–7.Google Scholar
Paniak, C, Phillips, K, Toller-Lobe, G, Durand, A, Nagy, J. Sensitivity of three recent questionnaires to mild traumatic brain injury-related effects. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1999; 14: 211–19.Google Scholar
Shukla, D, Devi, BI, Agrawal, A. Outcome measures for traumatic brain injury. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011; 113: 435–41.Google Scholar
Van Baalen, B, Odding, E, Van Woensel, MP, Roebroeck, ME. Reliability and sensitivity to change of measurement instruments used in a traumatic brain injury population. Clin Rehabil 2006; 20: 686700.Google Scholar
Wilde, EA, Whiteneck, GG, Bogner, J, Bushnik, T, Cifu, DX, Dikmen, S, et al. Recommendations for the use of common outcome measures in traumatic brain injury research. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010; 91: 1650–60 e17.Google Scholar
Mahoney, FI, Barthel, DW. Functional evaluation: the Barthel Index. Md State Med J 1965; 14: 61–5.Google Scholar
Rappaport, M, Hall, KM, Hopkins, K, Belleza, T, Cope, DN. Disability rating scale for severe head trauma: coma to community. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1982; 63: 118–23.Google Scholar
Dodds, TA, Martin, DP, Stolov, WC, Deyo, RA. A validation of the Functional Independence Measurement and its performance among rehabilitation inpatients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 531–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamilton, B, Granger, C, Sherwin, F, Zielezny, M, Tashman, J. Uniform national data system for medical rehabilitation. In: Fuhrer, M, editor. Rehabilitation outcomes: analysis and measurement. Baltimore, MD: Brookes, 1987, pp. 137–47.Google Scholar
Linacre, JM, Heinemann, AW, Wright, BD, Granger, CV, Hamilton, BB. The structure and stability of the Functional Independence Measure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 75: 127–32.Google Scholar
Malec, J, Lezak, M. Manual for the Mayo-Portland adaptability inventory (MPAI-4) for adults, children and adolescents. 2003 4/15/14. Available from: www.tbims.org/combi/mpai/.Google Scholar
Giacino, J, Kalmar, K. Coma Recovery Scale-revised. Administration and scoring guidelines. Edison, NJ: Center for Head Injuries, 2004.Google Scholar
Jenkinson, C, Coulter, A, Wright, L. Short Form 36 (SF36) health survey questionnaire: normative data for adults of working age. BMJ 1993; 306: 1437–40.Google Scholar
Ware, JE, Jr., Sherbourne, CD. The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Med Care 1992; 30: 473–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ayr, LK, Yeates, KO, Taylor, HG, Browne, M. Dimensions of postconcussive symptoms in children with mild traumatic brain injuries. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009; 15: 1930.Google Scholar
Taylor, HG, Dietrich, A, Nuss, K, Wright, M, Rusin, J, Bangert, B, et al. Post-concussive symptoms in children with mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology 2010; 24: 148–59.Google Scholar
Bergner, M, Bobbitt, RA, Carter, WB, Gilson, BS. The Sickness Impact Profile: development and final revision of a health status measure. Med Care 1981; 19: 787805.Google Scholar
De Bruin, AF, Buys, M, De Witte, LP, Diederiks, JP. The sickness impact profile: SIP68, a short generic version. First evaluation of the reliability and reproducibility. J Clin Epidemiol 1994; 47: 863–71.Google Scholar
Post, MW, De Bruin, A, De Witte, L, Schrijvers, A. The SIP68: a measure of health-related functional status in rehabilitation medicine. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996; 77: 440–5.Google Scholar
Kroenke, K, Spitzer, RL, Williams, JB. The PHQ-15: validity of a new measure for evaluating the severity of somatic symptoms. Psychosom Med 2002; 64: 258–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Golderberg, D, Williams, P. A user’s guide to the General Health Questionnaire. Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson, 1988.Google Scholar
Moss-Morris, R, Weinman, J, Petrie, K, Horne, R, Cameron, L, Buick, D. The revised illness perception questionnaire (IPQ-R). Psychol Hlth 2002; 17: 116.Google Scholar
Broadbent, E, Petrie, KJ, Main, J, Weinman, J. The brief illness perception questionnaire. J Psychosom Res 2006; 60: 631–7.Google Scholar
Jennett, B, Bond, M. Assessment of outcome after severe brain damage. Lancet 1975; 1: 480–4.Google ScholarPubMed
Goodman, LA, Corcoran, C, Turner, K, Yuan, N, Green, BL. Assessing traumatic event exposure: general issues and preliminary findings for the Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire. J Trauma Stress 1998; 11: 521–42.Google Scholar
Radloff, LS. The CES-D scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Appl Psychol Meas 1977; 1: 385401.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2000.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5), 5th edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar
Mccauley, SR, Boake, C, Pedroza, C, Brown, SA, Levin, HS, Goodman, HS, et al. Postconcussional disorder: are the DSM-IV criteria an improvement over the ICD-10? J Nerv Ment Dis 2005; 193: 540–50.Google Scholar
The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) and the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS). ICD-9-CM official guidelines for coding and reporting. 2011 . Available at www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/icd/icd9cm_guidelines_2011.pdf.Google Scholar
ICD-10. Classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.Google Scholar
Kay, T, Cavallo, MM, Ezrachi, O, Vavagiakis, P. The Head Injury Family Interview: a clinical and research tool. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1995; 10: 1231.Google Scholar
Gouvier, WD, Cubic, B, Jones, G, Brantley, P, Cutlip, Q. Postconcussion symptoms and daily stress in normal and head-injured college populations. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1992; 7: 193211.Google Scholar
Herrmann, N, Rapoport, MJ, Rajaram, RD, Chan, F, Kiss, A, Ma, AK, et al. Factor analysis of the Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire in mild-to-moderate traumatic brain injury patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009; 21: 181–8.Google Scholar
King, N, Crawford, S, Wenden, F, Moss, N, Wade, D. The Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire: a measure of symptoms commonly experienced after head injury and its reliability. J Neurol 1995; 242: 587–92.Google Scholar
Potter, S, Leigh, E, Wade, D, Fleminger, S. The Rivermead Post Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire: a confirmatory factor analysis. J Neurol 2006; 253: 1603–14.Google Scholar
Axelrod, BN, Fox, DD, Lees-Haley, PR, Earnest, K, Dolezal-Wood, S, Goldman, RS. Latent structure of the Postconcussion Syndrome Questionnaire. Psychol Assess 1996; 8: 422–7.Google Scholar
Lovell, MR, Collins, MW. Neuropsychological assessment of the college football player. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1998; 13: 926.Google Scholar
Piland, SG, Motl, RW, Guskiewicz, KM, McCrea, M, Ferrara, MS. Structural validity of a self-report concussion-related symptom scale. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 2732.Google Scholar
Derogatis, LR. Symptom checklist SCL‐90‐R. Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research, 1975.Google Scholar
Derogatis, LR, Melisaratos, N. The Brief Symptom Inventory: an introductory report. Psychol Med 1983; 13: 595605.Google Scholar
Butcher, J, Atlis, M, Hahn, J. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). In: Hilsenroth, M, Segal, D, Hersen, M, editors. Comprehensive handbook of psychological assessment, volume 2: Personality assessment. New York: John Wiley, 2004, pp. 3038.Google Scholar
Butcher, J, Dahlstrom, W, Graham, J, Tellegen, A, Kaemmer, B. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2): manual for administration and scoring. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Blanchard, EB, Jones-Alexander, J, Buckley, TC, Forneris, CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther 1996; 34: 669–73.Google Scholar
Weathers, F, Litz, B, Herman, D, Huska, J, Keane, T. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): reliability, validity, diagnostic utility. Paper Presented at the 9th Annual Conference for the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX, 1993.Google Scholar
Caplan, LJ, Ivins, B, Poole, JH, Vanderploeg, RD, Jaffee, MS, Schwab, K. The structure of postconcussive symptoms in 3 US military samples. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2010; 25: 447–58.Google Scholar
Cicerone, KD, Kalmar, K. Persistent postconcussion syndrome: the structure of subjective complaints after mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1995; 10: 117.Google Scholar
King, PR, Donnelly, KT, Donnelly, JP, Dunnam, M, Warner, G, Kittleson, CJ, et al. Psychometric study of the Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory. J Rehabil Res Dev 2012; 49: 879–88.Google Scholar
Kreutzer, JS, Marwitz, JH, Seel, R, Serio, CD. Validation of a neurobehavioral functioning inventory for adults with traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996; 77: 116–24.Google Scholar
Seel, RT, Kreutzer, JS, Sander, AM. Concordance of patients’ and family members’ ratings of neurobehavioral functioning after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997; 78: 1254–9.Google Scholar
Vanier, M, Mazaux, JM, Lambert, J, Dassa, C, Levin, HS. Assessment of neuropsychologic impairments after head injury: interrater reliability and factorial and criterion validity of the Neurobehavioral Rating Scale-Revised. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81: 796806.Google ScholarPubMed
Mccauley, SR, Boake, C, Levin, HS, Contant, CF, Song, JX. Postconcussional disorder following mild to moderate traumatic brain injury: anxiety, depression, and social support as risk factors and comorbidities. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2001; 23: 792808.Google Scholar
Bjelland, I, Dahl, AA, Haug, TT, Neckelmann, D. The validity of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. An updated literature review. J Psychosom Res 2002; 52: 6977.Google Scholar
Zigmond, AS, Snaith, RP. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1983; 67: 361–70.Google Scholar
Spence, M, Moss-Morris, R, Chalder, T. The Behavioural Responses to Illness Questionnaire (BRIQ): a new predictive measure of medically unexplained symptoms following acute infection. Psychol Med 2005; 35: 583–93.Google Scholar
Chen, JK, Johnston, KM, Collie, A, Mccrory, P, Ptito, A. A validation of the post concussion symptom scale in the assessment of complex concussion using cognitive testing and functional MRI. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007; 78: 1231–8.Google Scholar
Crawford, S, Wenden, FJ, Wade, DT. The Rivermead head injury follow up questionnaire: a study of a new rating scale and other measures to evaluate outcome after head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 510–14.Google Scholar
Goran, DA, Fabiano, RJ. The scaling of the Katz Adjustment Scale in a traumatic brain injury rehabilitation sample. Brain Inj 1993; 7: 219–29.Google Scholar
Katz, MM, Lyerly, SB. Methods for measuring adjustment and social behavior in the community: I. Rationale, description, discriminative validity and scale. Dev Psychol Rep 1963; 13: 503–35.Google Scholar
Holmes, TH, Rahe, RH. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale. J Psychosom Res 1967; 11: 213–18.Google Scholar
Horowitz, M, Schaefer, C, Hiroto, D, Wilner, N, Levin, B. Life event questionnaires for measuring presumptive stress. Psychosom Med 1977; 39: 413–31.Google Scholar
Wood-Dauphinee, SL, Opzoomer, MA, Williams, JI, Marchand, B, Spitzer, WO. Assessment of global function: the Reintegration to Normal Living Index. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1988; 69: 583–90.Google Scholar
Dijkers, M. Measuring the long-term outcomes of traumatic brain injury: a review of the Community Integration Questionnaire. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1997; 12: 7491.Google Scholar
Dikmen, S, Machamer, J, Miller, B, Doctor, J, Temkin, N. Functional status examination: a new instrument for assessing outcome in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2001; 18: 127–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E, Emmons, RA, Larsen, RJ, Griffin, S. The Satisfaction With Life Scale. J Pers Assess 1985; 49: 71–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pavot, W, Diener, E. The affective and cognitive context of self-reported measures of subjective well-being. Soc Indicators Res 1993; 28: 120.Google Scholar
Patrick, DL, Danis, M, Southerland, LI, Hong, G. Quality of life following intensive care. J Gen Intern Med 1988; 3: 218–23.Google Scholar
Von Steinbuechel, N, Petersen, C, Bullinger, M, QOLIBRI Group. Assessment of health-related quality of life in persons after traumatic brain injury – development of the Qolibri, a specific measure. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005; 93: 43–9.Google Scholar
Von Steinbuchel, N, Wilson, L, Gibbons, H, Hawthorne, G, Hofer, S, Schmidt, S, et al. Quality of Life after Brain Injury (QOLIBRI): scale validity and correlates of quality of life. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27: 1157–65.Google Scholar
Cicerone, KD, Azulay, J. Perceived self-efficacy and life satisfaction after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2007; 22: 257–66.Google Scholar
Fugl-Meyer, AR, Melin, R, Fugl-Meyer, KS. Life satisfaction in 18- to 64-year-old Swedes: in relation to gender, age, partner and immigrant status. J Rehabil Med 2002; 34: 239–46.Google Scholar
Borgaro, SR, Prigatano, GP. Modification of the Patient Competency Rating Scale for use on an acute neurorehabilitation unit: the PCRS-NR. Brain Inj 2003; 17: 847–53.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. The measurement of adult intelligence. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1939.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – fourth edition (WAIS–IV). San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessments, 2008.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Childrenfifth edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessments, 2014.Google Scholar
Halstead, WC. Brain and intelligence; a quantitative study of the frontal lobes. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1947.Google Scholar
Matarazzo, JD, Wiens, AN, Matarazzo, RG, Goldstein, SG. Psychometric and clinical test–retest reliability of the Halstead impairment index in a sample of healthy, young, normal men. J Nerv Ment Dis 1974; 158: 3749.Google Scholar
Teasdale, GM, Pettigrew, LE, Wilson, JT, Murray, G, Jennett, B. Analyzing outcome of treatment of severe head injury: a review and update on advancing the use of the Glasgow Outcome Scale. J Neurotrauma 1998; 15: 587–97.Google Scholar
Lidvall, HF, Linderoth, B, Norlin, B. Causes of the post-concussional syndrome. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1974; 56: 3144.Google Scholar
Shahim, P, Zetterberg, H, Tegner, Y, Blennow, K. Serum neurofilament light as a biomarker for mild traumatic brain injury in contact sports. Neurology 2017; 88: 1788–94.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA). 2016. April 12, 2014. Available from: www.aseba.org/adults.html.Google Scholar
Drake, AI, Gray, N, Yoder, S, Pramuka, M, Llewellyn, M. Factors predicting return to work following mild traumatic brain injury: a discriminant analysis. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2000; 15: 1103–12.Google Scholar
American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine. Definition of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1993; 8: 8687.Google Scholar
Vos, PE, Battistin, L, Birbamer, G, Gerstenbrand, F, Potapov, A, Prevec, T, et al. EFNS guideline on mild traumatic brain injury: report of an EFNS task force. Eur J Neurol 2002; 9: 207–19.Google Scholar
Borg, J, Holm, L, Cassidy, JD, Peloso, PM, Carroll, LJ, Von Holst, H, et al. Diagnostic procedures in mild traumatic brain injury: results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med 2004: 6175.Google Scholar
The Management of Concussion–Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Working Group. VA/DOD clinical practice guideline for the management of concussion-mild traumatic brain injury. Version 2.0. 2016. Available at www.healthquality.va.gov/guidelines/Rehab/mtbi/mTBICPGFullCPG50821816.pdf.Google Scholar
Malec, JF, Brown, AW, Leibson, CL, Flaada, JT, Mandrekar, JN, Diehl, NN, et al. The Mayo classification system for traumatic brain injury severity. J Neurotrauma 2007; 24: 1417–24.Google Scholar
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Report to Congress on mild traumatic brain injury in the United States: steps to prevent a serious public health problem. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2003.Google Scholar
Klonoff, H, Low, MD, Clark, C. Head injuries in children: a prospective five year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977; 40: 1211–19.Google Scholar
Chen, JK, Johnston, KM, Frey, S, Petrides, M, Worsley, K, Ptito, A. Functional abnormalities in symptomatic concussed athletes: an fMRI study. NeuroImage 2004; 22: 6882.Google Scholar
King, NS, Kirwilliam, S. Permanent post-concussion symptoms after mild head injury. Brain Inj 2011; 25: 462–70.Google Scholar
Lippa, SM, Pastorek, NJ, Benge, JF, Thornton, GM. Postconcussive symptoms after blast and nonblast-related mild traumatic brain injuries in Afghanistan and Iraq war veterans. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2010; 16: 856–66.Google Scholar
Singh, R, Meier, TB, Kuplicki, R, Savitz, J, Mukai, I, Cavanagh, L, et al. Relationship of collegiate football experience and concussion with hippocampal volume and cognitive outcomes. JAMA 2014; 311: 1883–8.Google Scholar
Broglio, SP, Pontifex, MB, O’Connor, P, Hillman, CH. The persistent effects of concussion on neuroelectric indices of attention. J Neurotrauma 2009; 26: 1463–70.Google Scholar
Hugenholtz, H, Stuss, DT, Stethem, LL, Richard, MT. How long does it take to recover from a mild concussion? Neurosurgery 1988; 22: 853–8.Google Scholar
Mickeviciene, D, Schrader, H, Nestvold, K, Surkiene, D, Kunickas, R, Stovner, LJ, et al. A controlled historical cohort study on the post-concussion syndrome. Eur J Neurol 2002; 9: 581–7.Google Scholar
Hartlage, LC, Durant-Wilson, D, Patch, PC. Persistent neurobehavioral problems following mild traumatic brain injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2001; 16: 561–70.Google Scholar
Chan, RC. Attentional deficits in patients with persisting postconcussive complaints: a general deficit or specific component deficit? J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2002; 24: 1081–93.Google Scholar
Chan, RC. How severe should symptoms be before someone is said to be suffering from post-concussion syndrome? An exploratory study with self-reported checklist using Rasch analysis. Brain Inj 2005; 19: 1117–24.Google Scholar
Solbakk, AK, Reinvang, I, Svebak, S, Nielsen, CS, Sundet, K. Attention to affective pictures in closed head injury: event-related brain potentials and cardiac responses. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2005; 27: 205–23.Google Scholar
Heitger, MH, Jones, RD, Frampton, CM, Ardagh, MW, Anderson, TJ. Recovery in the first year after mild head injury: divergence of symptom status and self-perceived quality of life. J Rehabil Med 2007; 39: 612–21.Google Scholar
Johansson, B, Berglund, P, Ronnback, L. Mental fatigue and impaired information processing after mild and moderate traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2009; 23: 1027–40.Google Scholar
Robb Swan, A, Nichols, S, Drake, A, Angeles, A, Diwakar, M, Song, T, et al. Magnetoencephalography slow-wave detection in patients with mild traumatic brain injury and ongoing symptoms correlated with long-term neuropsychological outcome. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 1510–21.Google Scholar
Russell, WR. The traumatic amnesias. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1971.Google Scholar
Sawchyn, JM, Brulot, MM, Strauss, E. Note on the use of the Postconcussion Syndrome Checklist. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2000; 15: 18.Google Scholar
Dean, PJ, Sterr, A. Long-term effects of mild traumatic brain injury on cognitive performance. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7: 30.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG. Postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder after mild traumatic brain injury. J Nerv Ment Dis 1999; 187: 302–5.Google Scholar
Mccullagh, S, Feinstein, A. Outcome after mild traumatic brain injury: an examination of recruitment bias. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74: 3943.Google Scholar
Killam, C, Cautin, RL, Santucci, AC. Assessing the enduring residual neuropsychological effects of head trauma in college athletes who participate in contact sports. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2005; 20: 599611.Google Scholar
Moser, RS, Schatz, P. Enduring effects of concussion in youth athletes. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2002; 17: 91100.Google Scholar
Mccrea, M, Hammeke, T, Olsen, G, Leo, P, Guskiewicz, K. Unreported concussion in high school football players: implications for prevention. Clin J Sport Med 2004; 14: 1317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sefton, J, Pirog, K, Capitao, A, Harackiewicz, D, Cordova, M. An examination of factors that influence knowledge and reporting of mild brain injuries in collegiate football. J Athl Train 2004; 39: S52S53.Google Scholar
Shuttleworth-Edwards, AB, Noakes, TD, Radloff, SE, Whitefield, VJ, Clark, SB, Roberts, CO, et al. The comparative incidence of reported concussions presenting for follow-up management in South African rugby union. Clin J Sport Med 2008; 18: 403–9.Google Scholar
Breslow, J. New: 87 Deceased NFL players test positive for brain disease. 2015 09/18/2015. Available from: www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/new-87-deceased-nfl-players-test-positive-for-brain-disease/.Google Scholar
Dencker, SJ, Lofving, B. A psychometric study of identical twins discordant for closed head injury. Acta Psychiatr Neurol Scand Suppl 1958; 122: 150.Google Scholar
Cannon, WB. Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage. New York, NY: D. Appleton, 1915.Google Scholar
Dikmen, S, McLean, A, Temkin, N. Neuropsychological and psychosocial consequences of minor head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986; 49: 1227–32.Google Scholar
Rickels, E, Von Wild, K, Wenzlaff, P. Head injury in Germany: a population-based prospective study on epidemiology, causes, treatment and outcome of all degrees of head-injury severity in two distinct areas. Brain Inj 2010; 24: 1491–504.Google Scholar
McLean, SA, Kirsch, NL, Tan-Schriner, CU, Sen, A, Frederiksen, S, Harris, RE, et al. Health status, not head injury, predicts concussion symptoms after minor injury. Am J Emerg Med 2009; 27: 182–90.Google Scholar
Pieper, P, Garvan, C. Health-related quality-of-life in the first year following a childhood concussion. Brain Inj 2014; 28: 105–13.Google Scholar
Losoi, H, Silverberg, ND, Wäljas, M, Turunen, S, Rosti-Otajärvi, E, Helminen, M, et al. Recovery from mild traumatic brain injury in previously healthy adults. J Neurotrauma 2016; 33: 766–76.Google Scholar
Catale, C, Marique, P, Closset, A, Meulemans, T. Attentional and executive functioning following mild traumatic brain injury in children using the Test for Attentional Performance (TAP) battery. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2009; 31: 331–8.Google Scholar
Geary, EK, Kraus, MF, Pliskin, NH, Little, DM. Verbal learning differences in chronic mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2010; 16: 506–16.Google Scholar
Peña, CJ, Kronman, HG, Walker, DM, Cates, HM, Bagot, RC, Purushothaman, I, et al. Early life stress confers lifelong stress susceptibility in mice via ventral tegmental area OTX2. Science 2017; 356: 1185–8.Google Scholar
Garrod, A. The Croonian lectures on inborn errors of metabolism. Lancet 1908; 172: 17.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Berglund, P, Demler, O, Jin, R, Merikangas, KR, Walters, EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62: 593602.Google Scholar
Vanderploeg, RD, Curtiss, G, Belanger, HG. Long-term neuropsychological outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2005; 11: 228–36.Google Scholar
Vanderploeg, RD, Curtiss, G, Luis, CA, Salazar, AM. Long-term morbidities following self-reported mild traumatic brain injury. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2007; 29: 585–98.Google Scholar
Vanderploeg, RD, Belanger, HG, Curtiss, G. Mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder and their associations with health symptoms. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90: 1084–93.Google Scholar
Clarke, LA, Genat, RC, Anderson, JF. Long-term cognitive complaint and post-concussive symptoms following mild traumatic brain injury: the role of cognitive and affective factors. Brain Inj 2012; 26: 298307.Google Scholar
Donnell, AJ, Kim, MS, Silva, MA, Vanderploeg, RD. Incidence of postconcussion symptoms in psychiatric diagnostic groups, mild traumatic brain injury, and comorbid conditions. Clin Neuropsychol 2012; 26: 1092–101.Google Scholar
Ettenhofer, ML, Barry, DM. A comparison of long-term postconcussive symptoms between university students with and without a history of mild traumatic brain injury or orthopedic injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2012; 18: 451–60.Google Scholar
Hanten, G, Li, X, Ibarra, A, Wilde, EA, Barnes, A, Mccauley, SR, et al. Updating memory after mild traumatic brain injury and orthopedic injuries. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30: 618–24.Google Scholar
Hoge, CW, McGurk, D, Thomas, JL, Cox, AL, Engel, CC, Castro, CA. Mild traumatic brain injury in U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 453–63.Google Scholar
Rabinowitz, AR, Li, X, McCauley, SR, Wilde, EA, Barnes, A, Hanten, G, et al. Prevalence and predictors of poor recovery from mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 1488–96.Google Scholar
Adler, A. Mental symptoms following head injury: a statistical analysis of two hundred cases. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1945; 53: 3443.Google Scholar
Alves, WM, Colohan, AR, O’Leary, TJ, Rimel, RW, Jane, JA. Understanding posttraumatic symptoms after minor head injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1986; 1: 112.Google Scholar
Alves, W, Macciocchi, SN, Barth, JT. Postconcussive symptoms after uncomplicated mild head injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 1993; 8: 4859.Google Scholar
Anderson, V, Catroppa, C. Recovery of executive skills following paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI): a 2 year follow-up. Brain Inj 2005; 19: 459–70.Google Scholar
Barlow, KM, Crawford, S, Brooks, BL, Turley, B, Mikrogianakis, A. The incidence of postconcussion syndrome remains stable following mild traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatr Neurol 2015; 53: 491–7.Google Scholar
Barth, JT, Macciocchi, SN, Giordani, B, Rimel, R, Jane, JA, Boll, TJ. Neuropsychological sequelae of minor head injury. Neurosurgery 1983; 13: 529–33.Google Scholar
Bryant, RA, O’Donnell, ML, Creamer, M, McFarlane, AC, Clark, CR, Silove, D. The psychiatric sequelae of traumatic injury. Am J Psychiatry 2010; 167: 312–20.Google Scholar
Cartlidge, NE. Post-concussional syndrome. Scott Med J 1978; 23: 103.Google Scholar
Ricard, C, Casez, P, Gstalder, H, Mawazini, S, Gauthier, V, Fontanel, A, et al. Six-month outcome of 795 patients admitted to Annecy hospital emergency department for mild traumatic brain injury. Santé Publique (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France) 2013; 25: 711–18.Google Scholar
Chan, LG, Feinstein, A. Persistent sleep disturbances independently predict poorer functional and social outcomes 1 year after mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2015; 30: e67e75.Google Scholar
De Kruijk, JR, Leffers, P, Menheere, PP, Meerhoff, S, Rutten, J, Twijnstra, A. Prediction of post-traumatic complaints after mild traumatic brain injury: early symptoms and biochemical markers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 73: 727–32.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, MA, Meehan, WP, 3rd, Mannix, R. Duration and course of post-concussive symptoms. Pediatrics 2014; 133: 9991006.Google Scholar
Erez, AB, Rothschild, E, Katz, N, Tuchner, M, Hartman-Maeir, A. Executive functioning, awareness, and participation in daily life after mild traumatic brain injury: a preliminary study. Am J Occup Ther 2009; 63: 634–40.Google Scholar
Faux, S, Sheedy, J, Delaney, R, Riopelle, R. Emergency department prediction of post-concussive syndrome following mild traumatic brain injury – an international cross-validation study. Brain Inj 2011; 25: 1422.Google Scholar
Fenton, G, McClelland, R, Montgomery, A, Macflynn, G, Rutherford, W. The postconcussional syndrome: social antecedents and psychological sequelae. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162: 493–7.Google Scholar
Guthkelch, AN. Posttraumatic amnesia, post-concussional symptoms and accident neurosis. Eur Neurol 1980; 19: 91102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haagsma, JA, Scholten, AC, Andriessen, TM, Vos, PE, Van Beeck, EF, Polinder, S. Impact of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder on functional outcome and health-related quality of life of patients with mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 853–62.Google Scholar
Hanlon, RE, Demery, JA, Martinovich, Z, Kelly, JP. Effects of acute injury characteristics on neuropsychological status and vocational outcome following mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 1999; 13: 873–87.Google Scholar
Hartvigsen, J, Boyle, E, Cassidy, JD, Carroll, LJ. Mild traumatic brain injury after motor vehicle collisions: what are the symptoms and who treats them? A population-based 1-year inception cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95: S28694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hessen, E, Nestvold, K, Anderson, V. Neuropsychological function 23 years after mild traumatic brain injury: a comparison of outcome after paediatric and adult head injuries. Brain Inj 2007; 21: 963–79.Google Scholar
Hou, R, Moss-Morris, R, Peveler, R, Mogg, K, Bradley, BP, Belli, A. When a minor head injury results in enduring symptoms: a prospective investigation of risk factors for postconcussional syndrome after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012; 83: 217–23.Google Scholar
Ingebrigtsen, T, Waterloo, K, Marup-Jensen, S, Attner, E, Romner, B. Quantification of post-concussion symptoms 3 months after minor head injury in 100 consecutive patients. J Neurol 1998; 245: 609–12.Google Scholar
Jakobsen, J, Baadsgaard, SE, Thomsen, S, Henriksen, PB. Prediction of post-concussional sequelae by reaction time test. Acta Neurol Scand 1987; 75: 341–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klonoff, H, Clark, C, Klonoff, PS. Long-term outcome of head injuries: a 23 year follow up study of children with head injuries. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 410–15.Google Scholar
Kumar, S, Rao, SL, Nair, RG, Pillai, S, Chandramouli, BA, Subbakrishna, DK. Sensory gating impairment in development of post-concussive symptoms in mild head injury. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 59: 466–72.Google Scholar
Lange, RT, Brickell, TA, Kennedy, JE, Bailie, JM, Sills, C, Asmussen, S, et al. Factors influencing postconcussion and posttraumatic stress symptom reporting following military-related concurrent polytrauma and traumatic brain injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2014; 29: 329–47.Google Scholar
Lannsjo, M, Af Geijerstam, JL, Johansson, U, Bring, J, Borg, J. Prevalence and structure of symptoms at 3 months after mild traumatic brain injury in a national cohort. Brain Inj 2009; 23: 213–19.Google Scholar
Levin, HS, Mattis, S, Ruff, RM, Eisenberg, HM, Marshall, LF, Tabaddor, K, et al. Neurobehavioral outcome following minor head injury: a three-center study. J Neurosurg 1987; 66: 234–43.Google Scholar
Lingsma, HF, Yue, JK, Maas, AI, Steyerberg, EW, Manley, GT, Including, T-TI, et al. Outcome prediction after mild and complicated mild traumatic brain injury: external validation of existing models and identification of new predictors using the TRACK-TBI pilot study. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 8394.Google Scholar
Lundin, A, De Boussard, C, Edman, G, Borg, J. Symptoms and disability until 3 months after mild TBI. Brain Inj 2006; 20: 799806.Google Scholar
Maestas, KL, Sander, AM, Clark, AN, Van Veldhoven, LM, Struchen, MA, Sherer, M, et al. Preinjury coping, emotional functioning, and quality of life following uncomplicated and complicated mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2014; 29: 407–17.Google Scholar
Mahon, D, Elger, C. Analysis of posttraumatic syndrome following a mild head injury. J Neurosci Nurs 1989; 21: 382–4.Google Scholar
Max, JE, Pardo, D, Hanten, G, Schachar, RJ, Saunders, AE, Ewing-Cobbs, L, et al. Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents six-to-twelve months after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2013; 25: 272–82.Google Scholar
Mazzucchi, A, Cattelani, R, Missale, G, Gugliotta, M, Brianti, R, Parma, M. Head-injured subjects aged over 50 years: correlations between variables of trauma and neuropsychological follow-up. J Neurol 1992; 239: 256–60.Google Scholar
McMahon, P, Hricik, A, Yue, JK, Puccio, AM, Inoue, T, Lingsma, HF, et al. Symptomatology and functional outcome in mild traumatic brain injury: results from the prospective TRACK-TBI study. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31: 2633.Google Scholar
Middleboe, T, Andersen, HS, Birket-Smith, M, Friis, ML. Minor head injury: impact on general health after 1 year. A prospective follow-up study. Acta Neurol Scand 1992; 85: 59.Google Scholar
Mittenberg, W, Strauman, S. Diagnosis of mild head injury and the postconcussion syndrome. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2000; 15: 783–91.Google Scholar
Montgomery, EA, Fenton, GW, McClelland, RJ, Macflynn, G, Rutherford, WH. The psychobiology of minor head injury. Psychol Med 1991; 21: 375–84.Google Scholar
Nolin, P, Heroux, L. Relations among sociodemographic, neurologic, clinical, and neuropsychologic variables, and vocational status following mild traumatic brain injury: a follow-up study. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2006; 21: 514–26.Google Scholar
Petersen, C, Scherwath, A, Fink, J, Koch, U. Health-related quality of life and psychosocial consequences after mild traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents. Brain Inj 2008; 22: 215–21.Google Scholar
Relander, M, Troupp, H, Af Bjorkesten, G. Controlled trial of treatment for cerebral concussion. Br Med J 1972; 4: 777–9.Google Scholar
Røe, C, Sveen, U, Alvsåker, K, Bautz-Holter, E. Post-concussion symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury: influence of demographic factors and injury severity in a 1-year cohort study. Disabil Rehabil 2009; 31: 1235–43.Google Scholar
Ruffolo, CF, Friedland, JF, Dawson, DR, Colantonio, A, Lindsay, PH. Mild traumatic brain injury from motor vehicle accidents: factors associated with return to work. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 392–8.Google Scholar
Rutherford, WH, Merrett, JD, Mcdonald, JR. Symptoms at one year following concussion from minor head injuries. Injury 1979; 10: 225–30.Google Scholar
Sawyer, K, Bell, KR, Ehde, DM, Temkin, N, Dikmen, S, Williams, RM, et al. Longitudinal study of headache trajectories in the year after mild traumatic brain injury: relation to posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2015; 96: 2000–6.Google Scholar
Scholten, JD, Sayer, NA, Vanderploeg, RD, Bidelspach, DE, Cifu, DX. Analysis of US Veterans Health Administration comprehensive evaluations for traumatic brain injury in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom veterans. Brain Inj 2012; 26: 1177–84.Google Scholar
Scott, KL, Strong, CA, Gorter, B, Donders, J. Predictors of post-concussion rehabilitation outcomes at three-month follow-up. Clin Neuropsychol 2016; 30: 6681.Google Scholar
Sigurdardottir, S, Andelic, N, Roe, C, Jerstad, T, Schanke, AK. Post-concussion symptoms after traumatic brain injury at 3 and 12 months post-injury: a prospective study. Brain Inj 2009; 23: 489–97.Google Scholar
Schneiderman, AI, Braver, ER, Kang, HK. Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan: persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Epidemiol 2008; 167: 1446–52.Google Scholar
Snell, DL, Surgenor, LJ, Hay-Smith, EJC, Williman, J, Siegert, RJ. The contribution of psychological factors to recovery after mild traumatic brain injury: is cluster analysis a useful approach? Brain Inj 2015; 29: 291–9.Google Scholar
Stålnacke, B-M. Community integration, social support and life satisfaction in relation to symptoms 3 years after mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2007; 21: 933–42.Google Scholar
Steadman, JH, Graham, JG. Head injuries: an analysis and follow-up study. Proc R Soc Med 1970; 63: 23–8.Google Scholar
Stulemeijer, M, Van Der Werf, S, Borm, GF, Vos, PE. Early prediction of favourable recovery 6 months after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008; 79: 936–42.Google Scholar
Theadom, A, Parmar, P, Jones, K, Barker-Collo, S, Starkey, NJ, McPherson, KM, et al. Frequency and impact of recurrent traumatic brain injury in a population-based sample. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 674–81.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, CW, Pagulayan, KF, Petrie, EC, Mayer, CL, Colasurdo, EA, Shofer, JB, et al. High prevalence of chronic pituitary and target-organ hormone abnormalities after blast-related mild traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 2012; 3: 11.Google Scholar
Wrightson, P, Gronwall, D. Time off work and symptoms after minor head injury. Injury 1981; 12: 445–54.Google Scholar
Zemek, R, Clarkin, C, Farion, KJ, Vassilyadi, M, Anderson, P, Irish, B, et al. Parental anxiety at initial acute presentation is not associated with prolonged symptoms following pediatric concussion. Acad Emerg Med 2013; 20: 1041–9.Google Scholar
Zumstein, MA, Moser, M, Mottini, M, Ott, SR, Sadowski-Cron, C, Radanov, BP, et al. Long-term outcome in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: a prospective observational study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2011; 71: 120–7.Google Scholar
Denker, PG. The post-concussion syndrome. Prognosis and evaluation of the organic factors. NY State Med J 1944;44:379–84.Google Scholar
Baldassarre, M, Smith, B, Harp, J, Herrold, A, High, WM, Jr., Babcock-Parziale, J, et al. Exploring the relationship between mild traumatic brain injury exposure and the presence and severity of postconcussive symptoms among veterans deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. PM R 2015; 7: 845–58.Google Scholar
Delis, DC, Freeland, J, Kramer, JH, Kaplan, E. Integrating clinical assessment with cognitive neuroscience: construct validation of the California Verbal Learning Test. J Consult Clin Psychol 1988; 56: 123–30.Google Scholar
Delis, DC, Kramer, JH, Kaplan, E, Ober, BA. The California Verbal Learning Test. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation, 1987.Google Scholar
Gronwall, DMA, Sampson, H. The psychological effects of concussion. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1974.Google Scholar
Tombaugh, TN. A comprehensive review of the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2006; 21: 5376.Google Scholar
Alexander, DG, Shuttleworth-Edwards, AB, Kidd, M, Malcolm, CM. Mild traumatic brain injuries in early adolescent rugby players: long-term neurocognitive and academic outcomes. Brain Inj 2015; 29: 1113–25.Google Scholar
Bernstein, DM. Information processing difficulty long after self-reported concussion. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002; 8: 673–82.Google Scholar
Cossette, I, Ouellet, MC, McFadyen, BJ. A preliminary study to identify locomotor-cognitive dual tasks that reveal persistent executive dysfunction after mild traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 95: 1594–7.Google Scholar
Dean, PJ, O’Neill, D, Sterr, A. Post-concussion syndrome: prevalence after mild traumatic brain injury in comparison with a sample without head injury. Brain Inj 2012; 26: 1426.Google Scholar
Ellemberg, D, Leclerc, S, Couture, S, Daigle, C. Prolonged neuropsychological impairments following a first concussion in female university soccer athletes. Clin J Sport Med 2007; 17: 369–74.Google Scholar
Emanuelson, I, Andersson Holmkvist, E, Björklund, R, Stålhammar, D. Quality of life and post‐concussion symptoms in adults after mild traumatic brain injury: a population‐based study in western Sweden. Acta Neurol Scand 2003; 108: 332–8.Google Scholar
Fay, GC, Jaffe, KM, Polissar, NL, Liao, S, Martin, KM, Shurtleff, HA, et al. Mild pediatric traumatic brain injury: a cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1993; 74: 895901.Google Scholar
Fay, GC, Jaffe, KM, Polissar, NL, Liao, S, J’may, BR, Martin, KM. Outcome of pediatric traumatic brain injury at three years: a cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 75: 733–41.Google Scholar
Jakola, AS, Muller, K, Larsen, M, Waterloo, K, Romner, B, Ingebrigtsen, T. Five-year outcome after mild head injury: a prospective controlled study. Acta Neurol Scand 2007; 115: 398402.Google Scholar
Kashluba, S, Hanks, RA, Casey, JE, Millis, SR. Neuropsychologic and functional outcome after complicated mild traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 89: 904–11.Google Scholar
Keller, M, Hiltbrunner, B, Dill, C, Kesselring, J. Reversible neuropsychological deficits after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000; 68: 761–4.Google Scholar
Konrad, C, Geburek, AJ, Rist, F, Blumenroth, H, Fischer, B, Husstedt, I, et al. Long-term cognitive and emotional consequences of mild traumatic brain injury. Psychol Med 2011; 41: 1197–211.Google Scholar
Lee, H, Wintermark, M, Gean, AD, Ghajar, J, Manley, GT, Mukherjee, P. Focal lesions in acute mild traumatic brain injury and neurocognitive outcome: CT versus 3T MRI. J Neurotrauma 2008; 25: 1049–56.Google Scholar
Levine, B, Stuss, DT, Milberg, WP, Alexander, MP, Schwartz, M, Macdonald, R. The effects of focal and diffuse brain damage on strategy application: evidence from focal lesions, traumatic brain injury and normal aging. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1998; 4: 247–64.Google Scholar
Mangels, JA, Craik, FI, Levine, B, Schwartz, ML, Stuss, DT. Effects of divided attention on episodic memory in chronic traumatic brain injury: a function of severity and strategy. Neuropsychologia 2002; 40: 2369–85.Google Scholar
Massagli, TL, Fann, JR, Burington, BE, Jaffe, KM, Katon, WJ, Thompson, RS. Psychiatric illness after mild traumatic brain injury in children. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 85: 1428–34.Google Scholar
Mayer, AR, Hanlon, FM, Ling, JM. Gray matter abnormalities in pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 723–30.Google Scholar
McHugh, T, Laforce, R, Jr., Gallagher, P, Quinn, S, Diggle, P, Buchanan, L. Natural history of the long-term cognitive, affective, and physical sequelae of mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Cogn 2006; 60: 209–11.Google Scholar
Moore, RD, Hillman, CH, Broglio, SP. The persistent influence of concussive injuries on cognitive control and neuroelectric function. J Athl Train 2014; 49: 2435.Google Scholar
O’Jile, JR, Ryan, LM, Betz, B, Parks-Levy, J, Hilsabeck, RC, Rhudy, JL, et al. Information processing following mild head injury. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2006; 21: 293–6.Google Scholar
Oldenburg, C, Lundin, A, Edman, G, Nygren-De Boussard, C, Bartfai, A. Cognitive reserve and persistent post-concussion symptoms – a prospective mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) cohort study. Brain Inj 2016; 30: 146–55.Google Scholar
Papoutsis, J, Stargatt, R, Catroppa, C. Long-term executive functioning outcomes for complicated and uncomplicated mild traumatic brain injury sustained in early childhood. Dev Neuropsychol 2014; 39: 638–45.Google Scholar
Pontifex, MB, Broglio, SP, Drollette, ES, Scudder, MR, Johnson, CR, O’Connor, PM, et al. The relation of mild traumatic brain injury to chronic lapses of attention. Res Q Exerc Sport 2012; 83: 553–9.Google Scholar
Potter, DD, Bassett, MR, Jory, SH, Barrett, K. Changes in event-related potentials in a three-stimulus auditory oddball task after mild head injury. Neuropsychologia 2001; 39: 1464–72.Google Scholar
Potter, DD, Jory, SH, Bassett, MR, Barrett, K, Mychalkiw, W. Effect of mild head injury on event-related potential correlates of Stroop task performance. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002; 8: 828–37.Google Scholar
Schoenhuber, R, Gentilini, M. Anxiety and depression after mild head injury: a case control study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 722–4.Google Scholar
Segalowitz, SJ, Bernstein, DM, Lawson, S. P300 event-related potential decrements in well-functioning university students with mild head injury. Brain Cogn 2001; 45: 342–56.Google Scholar
Sinopoli, KJ, Chen, JK, Wells, G, Fait, P, Ptito, A, Taha, T, et al. Imaging “brain strain” in youth athletes with mild traumatic brain injury during dual-task performance. J Neurotrauma 2014; 31: 1843–59.Google Scholar
Sterr, A, Herron, KA, Hayward, C, Montaldi, D. Are mild head injuries as mild as we think? Neurobehavioral concomitants of chronic post-concussion syndrome. BMC Neurol 2006; 6: 7.Google Scholar
Styrke, J, Sojka, P, Bjornstig, U, Bylund, PO, Stalnacke, BM. Sex-differences in symptoms, disability, and life satisfaction three years after mild traumatic brain injury: a population-based cohort study. J Rehabil Med 2013; 45: 749–57.Google Scholar
Tay, SY, Ang, BT, Lau, XY, Meyyappan, A, Collinson, SL. Chronic impairment of prospective memory after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2010; 27: 7783.Google Scholar
Waljas, M, Iverson, GL, Lange, RT, Hakulinen, U, Dastidar, P, Huhtala, H, et al. A prospective biopsychosocial study of the persistent post-concussion symptoms following mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2015; 32: 534–47.Google Scholar
Wright, JC, Telford, R. Postconcussive symptoms and psychological distress. Clin Rehabil 1996; 10: 334–6.Google Scholar
Ettenhofer, ML, Abeles, N. The significance of mild traumatic brain injury to cognition and self-reported symptoms in long-term recovery from injury. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2009; 31: 363–72.Google Scholar
Hoge, CW, Castro, CA, Messer, SC, McGurk, D, Cotting, DI, Koffman, RL. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1322.Google Scholar
Cantero, JL, Iglesias, JE, Van Leemput, K, Atienza, M. Regional hippocampal atrophy and higher levels of plasma amyloid-beta are associated with subjective memory complaints in nondemented elderly subjects. J Gerontol Ser A: Biomed Sci Med Sci 2016; 71: 1210–15.Google Scholar
Lee, SD, Ong, B, Pike, KE, Kinsella, GJ. Prospective memory and subjective memory decline: a neuropsychological indicator of memory difficulties in community-dwelling older people. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2017; 115.Google Scholar
Seo, EH, Kim, H, Choi, KY, Lee, KH, Choo, IH. Association of subjective memory complaint and depressive symptoms with objective cognitive functions in prodromal Alzheimer’s disease including pre-mild cognitive impairment. J Affect Disord 2017; 217: 24–8.Google Scholar
Teipel, SJ, Cavedo, E, Weschke, S, Grothe, MJ, Rojkova, K, Fontaine, G, et al. Cortical amyloid accumulation is associated with alterations of structural integrity in older people with subjective memory complaints. Neurobiol Aging 2017; 57:143–52.Google Scholar
Dikmen, S, Machamer, J, Fann, JR, Temkin, NR. Rates of symptom reporting following traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2010; 16: 401–11.Google Scholar
Levin, HS, High, WM, Goethe, KE, Sisson, RA, Overall, JE, Rhoades, HM, et al. The neurobehavioural rating scale: assessment of the behavioural sequelae of head injury by the clinician. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987; 50: 183–93.Google Scholar
Mayer, AR, Ling, JM, Yang, Z, Pena, A, Yeo, RA, Klimaj, S. Diffusion abnormalities in pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 2012; 32: 17961–9.Google Scholar
Rutherford, W. Postconcussion symptoms: relationship to acute neurological indices, individual differences, and circumstances of injury. In: Levin, H, Eisenberg, H, Benton, A, editors. Mild head injury. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 217–28.Google Scholar
Bay, EH, Liberzon, I. Early stress response: a vulnerability framework for functional impairment following mild traumatic brain injury. Res Theory Nurs Pract 2009; 23: 4261.Google Scholar
Bazarian, JJ, Wong, T, Harris, M, Leahey, N, Mookerjee, S, Dombovy, M. Epidemiology and predictors of post-concussive syndrome after minor head injury in an emergency population. Brain Inj 1999; 13: 173–89.Google Scholar
Boake, C, McCauley, SR, Levin, HS, Pedroza, C, Contant, CF, Song, JX, et al. Diagnostic criteria for postconcussional syndrome after mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005; 17: 350–6.Google Scholar
Bohnen, N, Van Zutphen, W, Twijnstra, A, Wijnen, G, Bongers, J, Jolles, J. Late outcome of mild head injury: results from a controlled postal survey. Brain Inj 1994; 8: 701–8.Google Scholar
Bohnen, NJ, Wijnen, G, Twijnstra, A, Van Zutphen, W, Jolles, J. The constellation of late post-traumatic symptoms of mild head injury patients. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 1995; 9: 33–9.Google Scholar
Brooks, BL, Daya, H, Khan, S, Carlson, HL, Mikrogianakis, A, Barlow, KM. Cognition in the emergency department as a predictor of recovery after pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2016; 22: 379–87.Google Scholar
De Leon, MB, Kirsch, NL, Maio, RF, Tan-Schriner, CU, Millis, SR, Frederiksen, S, et al. Baseline predictors of fatigue 1 year after mild head injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90: 956–65.Google Scholar
Edna, TH. Disability 3–5 years after minor head injury. J Oslo City Hosp 1987; 37: 41–8.Google Scholar
Edna, TH, Cappelen, J. Late post-concussional symptoms in traumatic head injury. An analysis of frequency and risk factors. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1987; 86: 1217.Google Scholar
Friedland, JF, Dawson, DR. Function after motor vehicle accidents: a prospective study of mild head injury and posttraumatic stress. J Nerv Ment Dis 2001; 189: 426–34.Google Scholar
Hajek, CA, Yeates, KO, Gerry Taylor, H, Bangert, B, Dietrich, A, Nuss, KE, et al. Relationships among post-concussive symptoms and symptoms of PTSD in children following mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2010; 24: 100–9.Google Scholar
Heltemes, KJ, Holbrook, TL, Macgregor, AJ, Galarneau, MR. Blast-related mild traumatic brain injury is associated with a decline in self-rated health amongst US military personnel. Injury 2012; 43: 1990–5.Google Scholar
Kraus, J, Schaffer, K, Ayers, K, Stenehjem, J, Shen, H, Afifi, AA. Physical complaints, medical service use, and social and employment changes following mild traumatic brain injury: a 6-month longitudinal study. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2005; 20: 239–56.Google Scholar
Kraus, J, Hsu, P, Schaffer, K, Vaca, F, Ayers, K, Kennedy, F, et al. Preinjury factors and 3-month outcomes following emergency department diagnosis of mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009; 24: 344–54.Google Scholar
Kraus, JF, Hsu, P, Schafer, K, Afifi, AA. Sustained outcomes following mild traumatic brain injury: results of a five-emergency department longitudinal study. Brain Inj 2014; 28: 1248–56.Google Scholar
Levin, H, Li, X, Mccauley, SR, Hanten, G, Wilde, EA, Swank, PR. Neuropsychological outcome of mTBI: a principal component analysis approach. J Neurotrauma. 2013; 30: 625632.Google Scholar
Losoi, H, Wäljas, M, Turunen, S, Brander, A, Helminen, M, Luoto, TM, et al. Resilience is associated with fatigue after mild traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2015; 30: E2432.Google Scholar
Masson, F, Maurette, P, Salmi, LR, Dartigues, JF, Vecsey, J, Destaillats, JM, et al. Prevalence of impairments 5 years after a head injury, and their relationship with disabilities and outcome. Brain Inj 1996; 10: 487–97.Google Scholar
Meares, S, Shores, EA, Taylor, AJ, Batchelor, J, Bryant, RA, Baguley, IJ, et al. The prospective course of postconcussion syndrome: the role of mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology 2011; 25: 454–65.Google Scholar
Mickeviciene, D, Schrader, H, Obelieniene, D, Surkiene, D, Kunickas, R, Stovner, LJ, et al. A controlled prospective inception cohort study on the post-concussion syndrome outside the medicolegal context. Eur J Neurol 2004; 11: 411–19.Google Scholar
Nash, S, Luaute, J, Bar, JY, Sancho, PO, Hours, M, Chossegros, L, et al. Cognitive and behavioural post-traumatic impairments: what is the specificity of a brain injury? A study within the ESPARR cohort. Ann Phys Rehabil Med 2014; 57: 600–17.Google Scholar
Ponsford, J, Willmott, C, Rothwell, A, Cameron, P, Kelly, AM, Nelms, R, et al. Factors influencing outcome following mild traumatic brain injury in adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2000; 6: 568–79.Google Scholar
Ponsford, J, Cameron, P, Fitzgerald, M, Grant, M, Mikocka-Walus, A. Long-term outcomes after uncomplicated mild traumatic brain injury: a comparison with trauma controls. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28: 937–46.Google Scholar
Ponsford, J, Cameron, P, Fitzgerald, M, Grant, M, Mikocka-Walus, A, Schonberger, M. Predictors of postconcussive symptoms 3 months after mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology 2012; 26: 304–13.Google Scholar
Sheedy, J, Harvey, E, Faux, S, Geffen, G, Shores, EA. Emergency department assessment of mild traumatic brain injury and the prediction of postconcussive symptoms: a 3-month prospective study. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009; 24: 333–43.Google Scholar
Smith-Seemiller, L, Fow, NR, Kant, R, Franzen, MD. Presence of post-concussion syndrome symptoms in patients with chronic pain vs mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2003; 17: 199206.Google Scholar
Studer, M, Simonetti, BG, Joeris, A, Margelisch, K, Steinlin, M, Roebers, CM, et al. Post-concussive symptoms and neuropsychological performance in the post-acute period following pediatric mild traumatic brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2014; 20: 982–93.Google Scholar
Webb, TS, Whitehead, CR, Wells, TS, Gore, RK, Otte, CN. Neurologically-related sequelae associated with mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj 2015; 29: 430–7.Google Scholar
Stulemeijer, M, Werf, SPVD, Jacobs, B, Biert, J, Vugt, ABV, Brauer, JM, et al. Impact of additional extracranial injuries on outcome after mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2006; 23: 1561–9.Google Scholar
Ponsford, J, McLaren, A, Schonberger, M, Burke, R, Rudzki, D, Olver, J, et al. The association between apolipoprotein E and traumatic brain injury severity and functional outcome in a rehabilitation sample. J Neurotrauma 2011; 28: 1683–92.Google Scholar
Bernstein, DM. Recovery from mild head injury. Brain Inj 1999; 13: 151–72.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×