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² Glenn Greenwald and Ewan MacAskill, ‘Boundless Informant: The NSA's secret tool to track global surveillance data’, The Guardian (11 June 2013), available at: {https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/08/nsa-boundless-informant-global-datamining} accessed 20 November 2018.

³ Alex Gibney (dir.), Zero Days, Documentary (Magnolia Pictures, 2016).

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¹³ The article does not discuss the Trump presidency, as the relationship between the public cyber defence discourse and the transgressive practices is different from during the Obama presidency. Russia has emerged as a top threat from cyberspace, although rather ambiguously in the White House; the US Cyber Command has become more open about its aggressive behaviour in cyberspace; and we have not had the same number of leaked documents to provide us with insights into the secret workings of the US cyber defence community.

¹⁴ Eberle, ‘Narrative, desire, ontological security, transgression’.

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³⁰ Epstein, ‘Who speaks?’.

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³³ Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology, pp. 47–50, 138.

³⁴ To capture this process, Lacan introduces the notion objet petit a, which stands for the process through which our desire becomes attached to objects, as well as a structural position that ensures that the objects remain unattainable.

³⁵ Heath-Kelly, ‘Forgetting ISIS’, p. 88.

³⁶ Mandelbaum, ‘State, nation, society’.

³⁷ Ali and Whitham, ‘The unbearable anxiety of being’.

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⁴¹ Žižek, The Metastases of Enjoyment, p. 55, emphasis in original.

⁴² Eberle, ‘Narrative, desire, ontological security, transgression’, p. 259.

⁴³ Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology, p. 140.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ Ibid., p. 142.

⁴⁶ Žižek, Tarrying with the Negative, p. 203, fn. 7.

⁴⁷ Lacan's matrix for the Four Discourses, and particularly the Master Discourse, offers a useful methodological entry point into this initial step of the symptomal reading. Without expressively engaging in a symptomal reading, Arfi's discussion on Wendtian constructivism provides an excellent illustration of how the structural relations in the Master Discourse inevitably lead to the construction of a fantasy. Arfi, ‘Fantasy in the discourse of “social theory of international politics”’. For another discursive reading of Lacan. See also Solomon, The Politics of Subjectivity in American Foreign Policy Discourses.

⁴⁸ Zevnik, ‘A return of the repressed’; Ali and Whitham, ‘The unbearable anxiety of being’.

⁴⁹ Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology, p. 141, emphasis in original.

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⁵¹ Zevnik, ‘A return of the repressed’.

⁵² Žižek, The Sublime Object of Ideology, p. 140.

⁵³ Ibid., p. 141.

⁵⁴ Žižek, Slavoj, Iraq: The Borrowed Kettle (London: Verso, 2004), p. 142Google Scholar.

⁵⁵ Solomon, The Politics of Subjectivity in American Foreign Policy Discourses.

⁵⁶ Supplementing the reading of official sources, the article draws here on eight interviews with US officials working with defending the US in cyberspace, two from the US Cyber Command, four from the US Military Academy, West Point, one from US Indo-Pacific Command, and one from NATO Headquarters. One conversation took place in 2015, while the others took place in late 2016 and early 2017. Two additional interviews have been made with employees at FireEye and Crowdstrike. None of the individuals were willing to be quoted with name and rank and have thus been anonymised.

⁵⁷ Paying analytical attention to the slip of the tongue could open the psychoanalytic lens to critique from more methodologically conservative voices of ‘an interpretation gone too far’. Such critique somewhat misses the point. This is because the surprising interpretations are not simply attempts to offer ‘objective truths’ about the empirical object of investigation. Lacanian interventions are about making the subjects (in this case, in the US cyber defence community) think again, and ultimately to better reflect on (and master) the position they occupy within the US cyber defence discourse. This psychoanalytic ambition follows its own discursive structure, what Lacan called the Analyst Discourse. Lacan, Jacques, On Feminine Sexuality: The Limits of Love and Knowledge, ed. Miller, Jacques-Alain, trans. Fink, Bruce, Book XX: Encore (New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 1998), pp. 14–25Google Scholar; Lacan, Jacques, The Other Side of Psychoanalysis, ed. Miller, Jacques-Alain, trans. Grigg, Russell, Book XVII (London, New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 2007), pp. 11–68Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Department of Defense, ‘The DoD Cyber Strategy’, p. 1.

⁵⁹ Carter, ‘Remarks by Secretary Carter to US cyber command workforce at Fort Meade, Maryland’.

⁶⁰ Department of Defense, ‘The DoD Cyber Strategy’, p. 6.

⁶¹ David E. Sanger, ‘U.S. cyberattacks target ISIS in a new line of combat’, The New York Times (24 April 2016), available at: {https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/25/us/politics/us-directs-cyberweapons-at-isis-for-first-time.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&clickSource=story-heading&module=first-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news&_r=0} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁶² Jacobsen, Jeppe Teglskov and Ringsmose, Jens, ‘Cyber-bombing ISIS: Why disclose what is better kept secret?’, Global Affairs, 3:2 (2017), pp. 125–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁴ Lynn, William J. III, ‘Defending a new domain’, Foreign Affairs, 85:5 (2010), pp. 97–108Google Scholar; James Clapper, ‘Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community’ (Senate Armed Service Committee Hearing, Washington, DC, 12 March 2013); James Clapper, ‘Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community’ (Senate Armed Service Committee Hearing, Washington, DC, 29 January 2014); James Clapper, ‘Statement for the Record: Worldwide Threat Assessment of the US Intelligence Community’ (Senate Select Intelligence Committee, Washington, DC, 9 February 2016).

⁶⁵ Clapper, ‘Statement for the Record’, pp. 1–3.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ Clapper, ‘Statement for the Record’, p. 2.

⁶⁸ Cited in Josh Rogin, ‘NSA chief: Cybercrime constitutes the “greatest transfer of wealth in history” – foreign policy’, Foreign Policy (9 July 2012), available at: {https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/07/09/nsa-chief-cybercrime-constitutes-the-greatest-transfer-of-wealth-in-history/} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁶⁹ Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive, ‘Foreign Spies Stealing US Economic Secrets in Cyberspace’, Report to Congress (Washington, DC: Office of the Director of National Intelligence Publications, October 2011).

⁷⁰ Henderson, Scott J., The Dark Visitor: Inside the World of Chinese Hackers (self-published manuscript: Lulu, 2007), p. 102Google Scholar. See also Thomas, Timothy L., ‘China's electronic long-range reconnaissance’, Military Review (2008)Google Scholar.

⁷¹ Jayson M. Spade, ‘Information as Power: China's Cyber Power and America's National Security’ (Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 2012), p. 17.

⁷² James C. Mulvenon et al., ‘Chinese Responses to U.S. Military Transformation and Implications for the Department of Defense’ (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Cooperation, 2006), p. 93.

⁷³ Hansen, Security as Practice, p. 26.

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⁷⁵ Glynos and Stavrakakis, ‘Lacan and political subjectivity’, p. 263.

⁷⁶ Ibid., p. 268.

⁷⁷ Žižek, The Ticklish Subject, pp. 248, 367; Diken, Bülent and Laustsen, Carsten Bagge, ‘Enjoy your fight! – fight club as a symptom of the network society’, Cultural Values, 6:4 (2002), pp. 349–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁷⁹ Greenwald and MacAskill, ‘Boundless Informant’.

⁸⁰ Ibid.

⁸¹ Steve Contorno, ‘James Clapper's testimony one year later’, Politifact (11 March 2014), available at: {http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/article/2014/mar/11/james-clappers-testimony-one-year-later/} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸² Christopher Joye, ‘Interview transcript: Former Head of the NSA and Commander of the US Cyber Command, General Keith Alexander’, The Financial Review (9 May 2014), available at: {http://www.afr.com/technology/web/security/interview-transcriptformer-head-of-the-nsa-and-commander-of-the-us-cyber-command-general-keith-alexander-20140507-itzhw} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸³ Devlin Barrett, ‘Surveillance court judge criticized NSA “overcollection” of data: Decision offers scathing assessment of agency's management of Internet-surveillance program’, The Wall Street Journal (11 August 2014), available at: {https://www.wsj.com/articles/surveillance-court-judge-criticized-nsa-overcollection-of-data-1407806807} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸⁴ Michael Isikoff, ‘NSA program stopped no terror attacks, says White House panel member’, NBC News (20 December 2013), available at: {https://www.nbcnews.com/news/other/nsa-program-stopped-no-terror-attacks-says-white-house-panel-f2D11783588} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸⁵ Joye, ‘Interview transcript’.

⁸⁶ Žižek, The Metastases of Enjoyment, p. 55.

⁸⁷ Darren Samuelsohn, ‘Inside the NSA's hunt for hackers’, Politico (9 December 2015), available at: {http://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2015/12/federal-government-cyber-security-technology-worker-recruiting-000330} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸⁸ Cheryl Pellerin, ‘Carter unveils new DoD cyber strategy in Silicon Valley’, DoD News (23 April 2015), available at: {https://www.defense.gov/News/Article/Article/604511/} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁸⁹ Interviews with FireEye and CrowdStrike employees.

⁹⁰ Anthony H. Cordesman and Joseph Kendall, ‘Chinese Strategy and Military Modernization in 2016: A Comparative Analysis’, CSIS Report (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies, 2016), pp. 157–9; Jack Goldsmith, ‘Why did DOJ indict the Chinese military officers?’, Lawfare (20 May 2014), available at: {https://www.lawfareblog.com/why-did-doj-indict-chinese-military-officers} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁹¹ Grosrichard, The Sultan's Court, p. 11.

⁹² Craig Timberg and Barton Gellman, ‘NSA paying U.S. companies for access to communication networks’, Washington Post (29 August 2013), available at: {https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-paying-us-companies-for-access-to-communications-networks/2013/08/29/5641a4b6-10c2-11e3-bdf6-e4fc677d94a1_story.html?utm_term=.c4c0c1721f43} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁹³ Kaplan, Fred, Dark Territory: The Secret History of Cyber War (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2016), pp. 281–2Google Scholar.

⁹⁴ Ibid.

⁹⁵ Michael Daniel, ‘Heartbleed: Understanding when we disclose cyber vulnerabilities’, White House Blog (28 April 2014), available at: {https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2014/04/28/heartbleed-understanding-when-we-disclose-cyber-vulnerabilities} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁹⁶ Ibid.

⁹⁷ Ellen Nakashima and Craig Timberg, ‘NSA officials worried about the day its potent hacking tool would get loose. Then it did’, Washington Post (16 May 2017), available at: {https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/technology/nsa-officials-worried-about-the-day-its-potent-hacking-tool-would-get-loose-then-it-did/2017/05/16/50670b16-3978-11e7-a058-ddbb23c75d82_story.html?utm_term=.1a0da5176c99} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁹⁸ Peter Maass, ‘The hunter – he was a hacker for the NSA and he was willing to talk. I was willing to listen’, The Intercept (28 June 2016), available at: {https://theintercept.com/2016/06/28/he-was-a-hacker-for-the-nsa-and-he-was-willing-to-talk-i-was-willing-to-listen/} accessed 20 November 2018.

⁹⁹ Gibney (dir.), Zero Days, 1:45:25–1:46:25.