Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T21:22:50.153Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The effects of temporally secondary co-morbid mental disorders on the associations of DSM-IV ADHD with adverse outcomes in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2013

R. C. Kessler ,
L. A. Adler ,
P. Berglund ,
J. G. Green ,
K. A. McLaughlin ,
J. Fayyad ,
L. J. Russo ,
N. A. Sampson ,
V. Shahly  and
A. M. Zaslavsky
R. C. Kessler*
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
L. A. Adler
Affiliation:
Departments of Psychiatry and Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU School of Medicine and Psychiatry, NY VA Harbor Healthcare Service, New York, NY, USA
P. Berglund
Affiliation:
University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
J. G. Green
Affiliation:
School of Education, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
K. A. McLaughlin
Affiliation:
Division of General Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
J. Fayyad
Affiliation:
Institute for Development Research, Advocacy, and Applied Care (IDRAAC), St George Hospital University Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon
L. J. Russo
Affiliation:
Shire Development Inc., Wayne, PA, USA
N. A. Sampson
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
V. Shahly
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
A. M. Zaslavsky
Affiliation:
Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: R. C. Kessler, Ph.D., Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, 180 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA. (Email: kessler@hcp.med.harvard.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Although DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is known to be associated with numerous adverse outcomes, uncertainties exist about how much these associations are mediated temporally by secondary co-morbid disorders.

Method

The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A), a national survey of adolescents aged 13–17 years (n = 6483 adolescent–parent pairs), assessed DSM-IV disorders with the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Statistical decomposition was used to compare direct effects of ADHD with indirect effects of ADHD through temporally secondary mental disorders (anxiety, mood, disruptive behavior, substance disorders) in predicting poor educational performance (suspension, repeating a grade, below-average grades), suicidality (ideation, plans, attempts) and parent perceptions of adolescent functioning (physical and mental health, interference with role functioning and distress due to emotional problems).

Results

ADHD had significant gross associations with all outcomes. Direct effects of ADHD explained most (51.9–67.6%) of these associations with repeating a grade in school, perceived physical and mental health (only girls), interference with role functioning and distress, and significant components (34.5–44.6%) of the associations with school suspension and perceived mental health (only boys). Indirect effects of ADHD on educational outcomes were predominantly through disruptive behavior disorders (26.9–52.5%) whereas indirect effects on suicidality were predominantly through mood disorders (42.8–59.1%). Indirect effects on most other outcomes were through both mood (19.8–31.2%) and disruptive behavior (20.1–24.5%) disorders, with anxiety and substance disorders less consistently important. Most associations were comparable for girls and boys.

Conclusions

Interventions aimed at reducing the adverse effects of ADHD might profitably target prevention or treatment of temporally secondary co-morbid disorders.

Keywords

Adolescenceattention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)co-morbidityDSM-IVepidemiologyNational Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A)prevalence
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 44 , Issue 8 , June 2014 , pp. 1779 - 1792
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Angold, A, Costello, EJ, Erkanli, A (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 57–87.Google Scholar
Angold, A, Erkanli, A, Farmer, EM, Fairbank, JA, Burns, BJ, Keeler, G, Costello, EJ (2002). Psychiatric disorder, impairment, and service use in rural African American and white youth. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 893–901.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arias, AJ, Gelernter, J, Chan, G, Weiss, RD, Brady, KT, Farrer, L, Kranzler, HR (2008). Correlates of co-occurring ADHD in drug-dependent subjects: prevalence and features of substance dependence and psychiatric disorders. Addictive Behaviors 33, 1199–1207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barkley, RA (2013). Distinguishing sluggish cognitive tempo from ADHD in children and adolescents: executive functioning, impairment, and comorbidity. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 42, 161–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauermeister, JJ, Shrout, PE, Ramirez, R, Bravo, M, Alegria, M, Martinez-Taboas, A, Chavez, L, Rubio-Stipec, M, Garcia, P, Ribera, JC, Canino, G (2007). ADHD correlates, comorbidity, and impairment in community and treated samples of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 35, 883–898.Google Scholar
Becker, A, Steinhausen, HC, Baldursson, G, Dalsgaard, S, Lorenzo, MJ, Ralston, SJ, Dopfner, M, Rothenberger, A (2006). Psychopathological screening of children with ADHD: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in a pan-European study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15 (Suppl. 1), I56–I62.Google Scholar
Biederman, J, Petty, CR, Dolan, C, Hughes, S, Mick, E, Monuteaux, MC, Faraone, SV (2008). The long-term longitudinal course of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder in ADHD boys: findings from a controlled 10-year prospective longitudinal follow-up study. Psychological Medicine 38, 1027–1036.Google Scholar
Bloom, B, Cohen, RA, Freeman, G (2010). Summary health statistics for U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2009. Vital and Health Statistics. Series 10, No. 250, 1–82.Google Scholar
Bussing, R, Mason, DM, Bell, L, Porter, P, Garvan, C (2010). Adolescent outcomes of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a diverse community sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, 595–605.Google Scholar
CDC (2005). Mental health in the United States. Prevalence of diagnosis and medication treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder – United States, 2003. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 54, 842–847.Google Scholar
CDC (2010). Increasing prevalence of parent-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children – United States, 2003 and 2007. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 59, 1439–1443.Google Scholar
Chronis-Tuscano, A, Molina, BS, Pelham, WE, Applegate, B, Dahlke, A, Overmyer, M, Lahey, BB (2010). Very early predictors of adolescent depression and suicide attempts in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 1044–1051.Google Scholar
Connor, DF, Steeber, J, McBurnett, K (2010). A review of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder complicated by symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder or conduct disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 31, 427–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Copeland, WE, Shanahan, L, Costello, EJ, Angold, A (2009). Childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders as predictors of young adult disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 764–772.Google Scholar
Costello, EJ, Mustillo, S, Erkanli, A, Keeler, G, Angold, A (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 837–844.Google Scholar
Daley, D, Birchwood, J (2010). ADHD and academic performance: why does ADHD impact on academic performance and what can be done to support ADHD children in the classroom? Child: Care, Health and Development 36, 455–464.Google Scholar
Daviss, WB (2008). A review of co-morbid depression in pediatric ADHD: etiology, phenomenology, and treatment. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 18, 565–571.Google Scholar
De Los Reyes, A, Kazdin, AE (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: a critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin 131, 483–509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dey, AN, Schiller, JS, Tai, DA (2004). Summary health statistics for U.S. children: National Health Interview Survey, 2002. Vital and Health Statistics. Series 10, No. 221, 1–78.Google Scholar
Draper, NR, Smith, H (1998). Applied Regression Analysis, 3rd edn. John Wiley and Sons: New York.Google Scholar
Elkins, IJ, McGue, M, Iacono, WG (2007). Prospective effects of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and sex on adolescent substance use and abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 1145–1152.Google Scholar
Fayyad, J, Kessler, RC (in press). The epidemiology and societal burden of ADHD. In Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults and Children (ed. Adler, L., Spencer, T. and Wilens, T. E.). Cambridge University Press: New York.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Boden, JM, Horwood, LJ (2010). Classification of behavior disorders in adolescence: scaling methods, predictive validity, and gender differences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 119, 699–712.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Horwood, LJ, Lynskey, MT (1993 a). Prevalence and comorbidity of DSM-III-R diagnoses in a birth cohort of 15 year olds. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32, 1127–1134.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Lynskey, MT, Horwood, LJ (1993 b). Conduct problems and attention deficit behaviour in middle childhood and cannabis use by age 15. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 27, 673–682.Google Scholar
Fergusson, DM, Lynskey, MT, Horwood, LJ (1997). Attentional difficulties in middle childhood and psychosocial outcomes in young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 38, 633–644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flory, K, Lynam, DR (2003). The relation between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse: what role does conduct disorder play? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 6, 1–16.Google Scholar
Frazier, TW, Youngstrom, EA, Glutting, JJ, Watkins, MW (2007). ADHD and achievement: meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. Journal of Learning Disability 40, 49–65.Google Scholar
Froehlich, TE, Lanphear, BP, Epstein, JN, Barbaresi, WJ, Katusic, SK, Kahn, RS (2007). Prevalence, recognition, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a national sample of US children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 161, 857–864.Google Scholar
Gaub, M, Carlson, CL (1997). Behavioral characteristics of DSM-IV ADHD subtypes in a school-based population. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 25, 103–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillberg, C, Gillberg, IC, Rasmussen, P, Kadesjo, B, Soderstrom, H, Rastam, M, Johnson, M, Rothenberger, A, Niklasson, L (2004). Co-existing disorders in ADHD – implications for diagnosis and intervention. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 13 (Suppl. 1), I80–I92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 38, 581–586.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R (2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40, 1337–1345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grills, AE, Ollendick, TH (2002). Issues in parent-child agreement: the case of structured diagnostic interviews. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 5, 57–83.Google Scholar
Gunter, TD, Arndt, S, Riggins-Caspers, K, Wenman, G, Cadoret, RJ (2006). Adult outcomes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and conduct disorder: are the risks independent or additive? Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 18, 233–237.Google Scholar
Hasson, R, Fine, JG (2012). Gender differences among children with ADHD on continuous performance tests: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Attention Disorders 16, 190–198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haynes, RB, Sackett, DL, Guyatt, GH, Tugwell, P (2006). Clinical Epidemiology: How to Do Clinical Practice Research, 3rd edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Hinshaw, SP, Owens, EB, Zalecki, C, Huggins, SP, Montenegro-Nevado, AJ, Schrodek, E, Swanson, EN (2012). Prospective follow-up of girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder into early adulthood: continuing impairment includes elevated risk for suicide attempts and self-injury. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 80, 1041–1051.Google Scholar
Hosmer, DW, Lemeshow, S (2001). Applied Logistic Regression, 2nd edn. Wiley: New York.Google Scholar
Hurtig, T, Ebeling, H, Taanila, A, Miettunen, J, Smalley, S, McGough, J, Loo, S, Jarvelin, MR, Moilanen, I (2007). ADHD and comorbid disorders in relation to family environment and symptom severity. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 16, 362–369.Google Scholar
Impey, M, Heun, R (2012). Completed suicide, ideation and attempt in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 125, 93–102.Google Scholar
James, A, Lai, FH, Dahl, C (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and suicide: a review of possible associations. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110, 408–415.Google Scholar
Kadesjo, B, Gillberg, C (2001). The comorbidity of ADHD in the general population of Swedish school-age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42, 487–492.Google Scholar
Karlson, KB, Holm, A (2011). Decomposing primary and secondary effects: a new decomposition method. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 29, 221–237.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J, Birmaher, B, Brent, DA, Rao, U, Ryan, ND (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children, Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 980–988.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, Costello, EJ, Georgiades, K, Green, JG, Gruber, MJ, He, JP, Koretz, D, McLaughlin, KA, Petukhova, M, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Merikangas, KR (2012 a). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 372–380.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, Costello, EJ, Green, JG, Gruber, MJ, Heeringa, S, Merikangas, KR, Pennell, BE, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM (2009 a). Design and field procedures in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 18, 69–83.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, Costello, EJ, Green, JG, Gruber, MJ, Heeringa, S, Merikangas, KR, Pennell, BE, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM (2009 b). National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A): II. Overview and design. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 48, 380–385.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, Green, J, Gruber, MJ, Guyer, M, He, Y, Jin, R, Kaufman, J, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM (2009 c). National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A): III. Concordance of DSM-IV/CIDI diagnoses with clinical reassessments. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 48, 386–399.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Avenevoli, S, McLaughlin, KA, Green, JG, Lakoma, MD, Petukhova, M, Pine, DS, Sampson, NA, Zaslavsky, AM, Merikangas, KR (2012 b). Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Psychological Medicine 42, 1997–2010.Google Scholar
Kessler, RC, Üstün, TB (2004). The World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative Version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 13, 93–121.Google Scholar
Klein, RG, Mannuzza, S, Olazagasti, MA, Roizen, E, Hutchison, JA, Lashua, EC, Castellanos, FX (2012). Clinical and functional outcome of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 33 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 1295–1303.Google Scholar
Knäuper, B, Cannell, CF, Schwarz, N, Bruce, ML, Kessler, RC (1999). Improving accuracy of major depression age-of-onset reports in the US National Comorbidity Survey. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 8, 39–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lahey, BB, Loeber, R, Burke, J, Rathouz, PJ, McBurnett, K (2002). Waxing and waning in concert: dynamic comorbidity of conduct disorder with other disruptive and emotional problems over 7 years among clinic-referred boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111, 556–567.Google Scholar
Larson, K, Russ, SA, Kahn, RS, Halfon, N (2011). Patterns of comorbidity, functioning, and service use for US children with ADHD, 2007. Pediatrics 127, 462–470.Google Scholar
Latimer, WW, August, GJ, Newcomb, MD, Realmuto, GM, Hektner, JM, Mathy, RM (2003). Child and familial pathways to academic achievement and behavioral adjustment: a prospective six-year study of children with and without ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 7, 101–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewczyk, CM, Garland, AF, Hurlburt, MS, Gearity, J, Hough, RL (2003). Comparing DISC-IV and clinician diagnoses among youths receiving public mental health services. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 42, 349–356.Google Scholar
Lollar, DJ, Hartzell, MS, Evans, MA (2012). Functional difficulties and health conditions among children with special health needs. Pediatrics 129, e714–e722.Google Scholar
Merikangas, K, Avenevoli, S, Costello, J, Koretz, D, Kessler, RC (2009). National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A): I. Background and measures. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 48, 367–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, KR, He, JP, Brody, D, Fisher, PW, Bourdon, K, Koretz, DS (2010). Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics 125, 75–81.Google Scholar
Molina, BS, Pelham, WE Jr. (2003). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance use in a longitudinal study of children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 497–507.Google Scholar
Molina, BS, Pelham, WE Jr., Cheong, J, Marshal, MP, Gnagy, EM, Curran, PJ (2012). Childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and growth in adolescent alcohol use: the roles of functional impairments, ADHD symptom persistence, and parental knowledge. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 922–935.Google Scholar
Monuteaux, MC, Faraone, SV, Gross, LM, Biederman, J (2007). Predictors, clinical characteristics, and outcome of conduct disorder in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine 37, 1731–1741.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nock, MK, Hwang, I, Sampson, N, Kessler, RC, Angermeyer, M, Beautrais, A, Borges, G, Bromet, E, Bruffaerts, R, de Girolamo, G, de Graaf, R, Florescu, S, Gureje, O, Haro, JM, Hu, C, Huang, Y, Karam, EG, Kawakami, N, Kovess, V, Levinson, D, Posada-Villa, J, Sagar, R, Tomov, T, Viana, MC, Williams, DR (2009). Cross-national analysis of the associations among mental disorders and suicidal behavior: findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. PLoS Medicine 6, e1000123.Google Scholar
Novik, TS, Hervas, A, Ralston, SJ, Dalsgaard, S, Rodrigues Pereira, R, Lorenzo, MJ; ADORE Study Group (2006). Influence of gender on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Europe – ADORE. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15 (Suppl. 1), I15–I24.Google Scholar
Ollendick, TH, Jarrett, MA, Grills-Taquechel, AE, Hovey, LD, Wolff, JC (2008). Comorbidity as a predictor and moderator of treatment outcome in youth with anxiety, affective, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and oppositional/conduct disorders. Clinical Psychology Review 28, 1447–1471.Google Scholar
Pardini, DA, Fite, PJ (2010). Symptoms of conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and callous-unemotional traits as unique predictors of psychosocial maladjustment in boys: advancing an evidence base for DSM-V. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 49, 1134–1144.Google ScholarPubMed
Pastor, PN, Reuben, CA (2008). Diagnosed ADHD and learning disability, United States, 2004–2006: data from the National Health Interview Survey. Vital and Health Statistics. Series 10, No. 237, 1–14.Google Scholar
Pingault, JB, Tremblay, RE, Vitaro, F, Carbonneau, R, Genolini, C, Falissard, B, Cote, SM (2011). Childhood trajectories of inattention and hyperactivity and prediction of educational attainment in early adulthood: a 16-year longitudinal population-based study. American Journal of Psychiatry 168, 1164–1170.Google Scholar
Pliszka, SR (2000). Patterns of psychiatric comorbidity with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 9, 525–540.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, de Lima, MS, Horta, BL, Biederman, J, Rohde, LA (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 942–948.Google Scholar
Raiker, JS, Rapport, MD, Kofler, MJ, Sarver, DE (2012). Objectively-measured impulsivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): testing competing predictions from the working memory and behavioral inhibition models of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 40, 699–713.Google Scholar
Rapport, MD, Scanlan, SW, Denney, CB (1999). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and scholastic achievement: a model of dual developmental pathways. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 40, 1169–1183.Google Scholar
Rucklidge, JJ (2010). Gender differences in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 33, 357–373.Google Scholar
SAS Institute (2008). SAS/STAT® Software, Version 9.2 for Unix. SAS Institute Inc.: Cary, NC.Google Scholar
Schermerhorn, AC, D'Onofrio, BM, Slutske, WS, Emery, RE, Turkheimer, E, Harden, KP, Heath, AC, Martin, NG (2012). Offspring ADHD as a risk factor for parental marital problems: controls for genetic and environmental confounds. Twin Research and Human Genetics 15, 700–713.Google Scholar
Schieve, LA, Gonzalez, V, Boulet, SL, Visser, SN, Rice, CE, Braun, KV, Boyle, CA (2012). Concurrent medical conditions and health care use and needs among children with learning and behavioral developmental disabilities, National Health Interview Survey, 2006–2010. Research in Developmental Disabilities 33, 467–476.Google Scholar
Sourander, A, Klomek, AB, Niemela, S, Haavisto, A, Gyllenberg, D, Helenius, H, Sillanmaki, L, Ristkari, T, Kumpulainen, K, Tamminen, T, Moilanen, I, Piha, J, Almqvist, F, Gould, MS (2009). Childhood predictors of completed and severe suicide attempts: findings from the Finnish 1981 Birth Cohort Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 398–406.Google Scholar
Steinhausen, HC, Novik, TS, Baldursson, G, Curatolo, P, Lorenzo, MJ, Rodrigues Pereira, R, Ralston, SJ, Rothenberger, A; ADORE Study Group (2006). Co-existing psychiatric problems in ADHD in the ADORE cohort. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 15 (Suppl. 1), I25–I29.Google Scholar
Strine, TW, Lesesne, CA, Okoro, CA, McGuire, LC, Chapman, DP, Balluz, LS, Mokdad, AH (2006). Emotional and behavioral difficulties and impairments in everyday functioning among children with a history of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Preventing Chronic Disease 3, A52.Google ScholarPubMed
Szatmari, P, Boyle, M, Offord, DR (1989). ADDH and conduct disorder: degree of diagnostic overlap and differences among correlates. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 28, 865–872.Google Scholar
Taurines, R, Schmitt, J, Renner, T, Conner, AC, Warnke, A, Romanos, M (2010). Developmental comorbidity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 2, 267–289.Google Scholar
Torok, M, Darke, S, Kaye, S (2012). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and severity of substance use: the role of comorbid psychopathology. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 26, 974–979.Google Scholar
Willcutt, EG (2012). The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics 9, 490–499.Google Scholar
Willett, JB, Singer, JD (1993). Investigating onset, cessation, relapse, and recovery: why you should, and how you can, use discrete-time survival analysis to examine event occurrence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 61, 952–965.Google Scholar
Wolraich, ML, Hannah, JN, Pinnock, TY, Baumgaertel, A, Brown, J (1996). Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a county-wide sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35, 319–324.Google Scholar
Wolter, KM (1985). Introduction to Variance Estimation. Springer-Verlag: New York.Google Scholar
Wymbs, BT, Pelham, WE Jr., Molina, BS, Gnagy, EM, Wilson, TK, Greenhouse, JB (2008). Rate and predictors of divorce among parents of youths with ADHD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76, 735–744.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Kessler Supplementary Material

Tables

Download Kessler Supplementary Material(File)
File 122.9 KB