Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T01:26:27.725Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

X.—The Natural History of Yellow Fever in Africa*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 June 2012

A. J. Haddow
A. J. Haddow
Affiliation:
Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, University of Glasgow, Ruchill Hospital, Glasgow.
Get access

Synopsis

The studies on the epidemiology of yellow fever which have been carried out in Africa in the period 1925–1966 are presented in narrative form.

The original isolation of the virus is described, leading on to the survey work which showed that the infection is widespread in tropical Africa and that monkeys are very important hosts—perhaps the definitive mammalian hosts—of the virus. The discoveries of a monkey-to-man cycle in which the classical vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti, is replaced by A. simpsoni and of a monkey-to-monkey cycle, in which A. africanus is the vector, are described.

Recent epidemics are discussed, particularly that in Ethiopia, where there were about 200,000 cases, with 30,000 deaths, in the period 1960–62 and where the principal vector in the man-to-man cycle was A. simpsoni.

Work on groups of animals other than monkeys is reviewed, with particular reference to studies on the lemuroid Primates of the genus Galago, which are believed to be natural hosts of the virus. It is concluded that there are still many unknown facets in the epidemiology.

Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section B: Biological Sciences , Volume 70 , Issue 3 , 1969 , pp. 191 - 227
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Society of Edinburgh 1969

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This paper was assisted in publication by a Grant from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland.

References

References To Literature

Allee, W. C., 1926. “Measurement of environmental factors in the tropical rain-forest of Panama”, Ecology, 7, 273—302.Google Scholar
Bauer, J. H., 1928. “Transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes other than Aedes aegypti”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 8, 261–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, J. H. and mahaffy, A. F., 1930. “Susceptibility of African monkeys to yellow fever”, Am. J. Hyg., 12, 155–174.Google Scholar
Beeuwkes, H., Bauer, J. H. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1930. “Yellow Fever Endemicity in West Africa, with special reference to protection tests”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 10, 305–333.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beeuwkes, H. and Hayne, T. B., 1931. “Experimental demonstration of infectivity with yellow fever virus of Aedes aegypti captured in an African town”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 25, 107—110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beeuwkes, H. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1934. “The past incidence and distribution of yellow fever in West Africa as indicated by protection test surveys”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 28, 39–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beeuwkes, H. and Mahaffy, A. F., Burke, A. W. and Paul, J. H., 1934. “Yellow Fever protection test surveys in the French Cameroons, French Equatorial Africa, the Belgian Congo and Angola”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 28, 233–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonnel, P. H. and Deutschman, Z., 1954. “La fièvre jaune en Afrique au cours des années récentes”, Bull. Wld Hlth Org., 11, 325–389.Google Scholar
Boyd, J., 1965. “The ‘Torit’ case: yellow fever or hepatitis?”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59, 607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boye, L., 1934 “Les recherches concernant le test de protection contre la fièvre jaune en Afrique equatoriale françhise et au Caméroun”, Bull. Off. Int. Hyg. Publ., 26, 1061–1066.Google Scholar
Bugher, J. C., 1951. “Yellow fever the mammalian host”. In Yellow Fever (Ed. by Strode, G. K.). New York and London, McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Bugher, J. C., Boshell-Manrique, J., Roca-Garcia, M. and Osornomesa, E., 1944. “Epidemiology of jungle yellow fever in eastern Colombia”, Am.J. Hyg., 39, 16–51.Google Scholar
Buxton, A. P., 1951. “Further observations of the night resting habits of monkeys in a small area on the edge of the Semliki Forest, Uganda”, J. Anim. Ecol., 20, 31–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buxton, A. P., 1952. “Observations on the diurnal behaviour of the redtail monkey (Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti Matschie) in a small forest in Uganda”, J. Anim. Ecol., 21, 25–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, H. R., 1931. Yellow Fever: an epidemiological and historical study of its place of origin. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Chambon, L., Wone, I., Bres, P., Cornet, M., Ly, C., Michel, A., Lacan, A., Robin, P., Henderson, B. E., Williams, K. H., Camain, R., Lambert, D., Rey, M., Diop Mar, I., Oudart, J. L., Causse, G., Ba, H., Martin, M. and Artus, J. C., 1967. “Une épidémie de fièvre jaune au Sénégal en 1965”, Bull. Wld Hlth Org., 36, 113–150.Google Scholar
Courtois, G., Osterrieth, P. and Blanes Ridaura, G., 1960. “Isolement du virus de la fièrce jaune au Congo belge”, Annls Soc. Belge Med. Trop., 40, 29–60.Google Scholar
Dick, G. W. A., 1950. “The neutralization of French neurotropic yellow fever virus by sera of Bwamba children”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 44, 319–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dick, G. W. A., 1952 a. “Further studies on the susceptibility of African wild animals to yellow fever”, Rep. Virus Res. Inst. Entebbe, 2, 2.Google Scholar
Dick, G. W. A., 1952 b. “Further studies on the susceptibility of African wild animals to yellow fever”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 46, 47–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edwards, F. W., 1941. Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian Region. III. Culicine adults and pupae. London, Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.).Google Scholar
Findlay, G. M. (1938). (Discussion following paper by Soper, 1938). Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 32, 323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M., 1941. “The present position of yellow fever in Africa”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 35, 51–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M. and Clarke, L. P., 1934 a. “The susceptibility of the hedgehog to yellow fever; viscerotropic virus”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 28, 193–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M. and Clarke, L. P., 1934 b. “The susceptibility of the hedgehog to yellow fever; neurotropic virus”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 28, 335–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M., Hewer, T. F. and Clarke, L. P., 1935. “The susceptibility of Sudanese hedgehogs to yellow fever”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 28, 413–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M., Kirk, R. and Maccallum, F. O., 1941. “Yellow fever and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; the distribution of immune bodies to yellow fever”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 35, 121–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1936. “The susceptibility of Nigerian hedgehogs to yellow fever”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 29, 417–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Findlay, G. M., Stefanopoulo, G. J., Davey, T. H. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1936. “Yellow fever immune bodies in the blood of African animals. Preliminary observations”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 29, 419–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finlay, C., 1881. “El mosquito hipotéticamente considerado como agente de transmission de la fiebre amarilla”, An. Acad. Cienc. Med. Fis. Nat. Habana, 18, 147–169.Google Scholar
Franco, R., Martinez-Santamaria, J. and Toro-Villa, G., 1911. “Fiebre amarilla y fiebre espiroquetal; endemias y epidemias en Muzo, de 1907 a 1910”, Acad. Nac. Med. Ses. Cient. Centenario Bogota, 1, 169–228.Google Scholar
Garnham, P. C. C., Harper, J. C. and Highton, R. B., 1946. “The mosquitoes of the Kaimosi Forest, Kenya Colony, with special reference to yellow fever“, Bull. Ent. Res., 36, 473–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garret-Jones, C., 1950. “A dispersion of mosquitoes by wind”, Nature, Lond., 165, 285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbins, E. G., 1942. “On the habits and breeding places of Aedes (Stegomyia) simpsoni Theobald in Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit, 36, 151–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillett, J. D., 1951. “The habits of the mosquito Aedes (Stegomyia) simpsoni Theobald in relation to the epidemiology of yellow fever in Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 45, 110–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillett, J. D., 1955. “Further studies on the biting behaviour of Aedes (Stegomyia) simpsoni Theobald in Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 49, 154–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J., 1954 a. “On the mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. I. Description of Bwamba with special reference to mosquito ecology”, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 115, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., 1945 b. “The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. II. Biting activity with special reference to the influence of microclimate”, Bull. Ent. Res., 36, 33–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., 1945 c. “The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. III. The vertical distribution of mosquitoes in a banana plantation and the biting cycle of Aedes (Stegomyia) simpsoni Theobald”, Bull. Ent. Res., 36, 297–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., 1948. “The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. VI. Mosquito breeding in plant axils”, Bull. Ent. Res., 39, 185–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., 1952. “A review of the results of yellow fever protection tests on the sera of primates from Kenya”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 46, 135–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J., 1961. “Studies on the biting habits and medical importance of East African mosquitoes in the genus Aedes. II. Subgenera Mucidus, Diceromyia, Finlaya and Stegomyia”, Bull. Ent. Res, 52, 317–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J.,1965. “Yellow fever in central Uganda, 1964. Parti. Historical introduction”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59, 436–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J. and Dick, G. W. A., 1948. “Catches of biting Diptera in Uganda, with anaesthetized monkeys as bait”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 42, 271–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J., Dick, G. W. A., Lumsden, W. H. R. and Smithburn, K. C., 1951. “Monkeys in relation to the epidemiology of yellow fever in Uganda”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 45, 189–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J. and Ellice, J. M., 1964. “Studies on bush-babies (Galago spp.) with special reference to the epidemiology of yellow fever”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 58, 521–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., Gillett, J. D. and Highton, R. B., 1947 a. “The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. V. The vertical distribution and biting-cycle of mosquitoes in rain-forest, with further observations on microclimate”, Bull. Ent. Res., 37, 307–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1949. “The mosquitoes of Bwamba County, Uganda. VII. Intensive catching on tree-platforms with further observations on Aedes (Stegomyia) africanus Theobald”, Bull. Ent. Res., 40, 169–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., Smithburn, K. C., Dick, G. W. A., Kitchen, S. F. and Lumsden, W. H. R., 1948. “Implication of the mosquito Aedes (Stegomyia) africanus Theobald in the forest cycle of yellow fever in Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 42, 218–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J., Smithburn, K. C., Mahaffy, A. F. and Bugher, J. C., 1947 b. “Monkeys in relation to yellow fever in Bwamba County, Uganda”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 40, 677–700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J. and Someren, E. C. C. van, 1950. “A new species of Stegomyia Theobald from the Ruwenzori range, Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 44, 281–284CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddow, A. J. and Ssenkubuge, Y., 1965. “Entomological studies from a high steel tower in Zika Forest, Uganda. Part I. The biting activity of mosquitoes and Tabanids as shown by 24 hr. catches”, Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. Land., 117, 215–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haddow, A. J., Williams, M. C., Woodall, J. P., Simpson, D. I. H. and Goma, L. K. H., 1964. “Twelve isolations of Zika virus from Aedes (Stegomyia) africanus (Theobald) taken in and above a Uganda forest”, Bull. Wld Hlth Org., 31, 57–69.Google ScholarPubMed
Hewer, T. F., 1934. “Yellow fever in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan; serological and post-mortem evidence”, Lancet, 227, 496–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewitt, L. E., 1958. “Yellow fever neutralizing antibodies in Galago crassicaudatus agisymbanus (Coquerel)”, Rep. Virus. Res Inst. E. Afr., 8, 11.Google Scholar
Hingston, R. W. G., 1932. A naturalist in the Guiana Forest. London, Arnold.Google Scholar
Hocking, B., 1953. “The intrinsic range and speed of flight of insects”, Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. Lond., 104, 223–345.Google Scholar
Hudson, N. P., Bauer, J. H. and Philip, C. B., 1929 a. “Protection tests with serum of persons recovered from yellow fever in the Western Hemisphere and West Africa”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 9, 1–16.Google Scholar
Hudson, N. P., Philip, C. B. and Davis, G. E., 1929 b. “Protection tests with serum of persons recovered from yellow fever in the Western Hemisphere and West Africa—Additional Report”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 9, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, T. P.. 1943. “The reaction of the African grivet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops centralis) to yellow fever virus”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 36, 339–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, T. P., Jacobs, H. R. and Burke, A. W., 1941. “A survey of yellow fever immunity in Uganda”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 35, 131–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, C. G., 1951. “The study of wind-borne insect populations in relation to terrestrial ecology, flight periodicity and the estimation of aerial populations”, Set. Prog., Lond., 153, 41–62.Google Scholar
Johnson, C. G., 1953. “The aerial dispersal of aphids”, Discovery, Lond., 33, 19–22.Google Scholar
Kerr, J. A., 1932. “Studies on transmission of experimental yellow fever by Culex thalassius and Mansonia uniformis”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 26, 119–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, R., 1936. “Nouvelles recherches sur la fièvre jaune au Sudan anglo-égyptien”, Bull. Off. Lnt. Hyg. Publ., 28, 2340–2345.Google Scholar
Kirk, R., 1941. “An epidemic of yellow fever in the Nuba Mountains, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 35, 67–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, R. and Haseeb, M. A., 1953. “Animals and yellow fever infection in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 33, 225–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lampson, R., 1939. Death loses a pair of wings. New York and London, Scribner.Google Scholar
LewisD., J. D., J. 1943. “Mosquitoes in relation to yellow fever in the Nuba Mountains, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 37, 65–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LewisD., J. D., J. 1953. “The Stegomyia mosquitoes of the Anglo Egyptian-Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 47, 51–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LewisD., J. D., J. Hughes, T. P. and Mahaffy, A. F., 1942. “Experimental transmission of yellow fever by three common species of mosquitoes from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 36, 34–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liegeois, P., 1944. “Fièvre jaune au Congo belge”, Reel Trav. Sci. Mid. Congo Belge, 2, 97–123.Google Scholar
Liegeois, P., Rousseau, E. and Courtois, G., 1948. “Complement d'enquete sur la distribution de l'immunité antiamarile naturelle chez les indigenes du Congo belge”, Annls Soc. Belge Med. Trop., 28, 247–267.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., 1951. “The night resting habits of monkeys in a small area on the edge of the Semliki Forest, Uganda. A study in relation to the epidemiology of sylvan yellow fever”,J. Anim. Ecol., 20, 11–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., 1952. “The crepuscular biting activity of insects in the forest canopy in Bwamba, Uganda. A study in relation to the sylvan epidemiology of yellow fever”, Bull. Ent. Res., 42, 721–760.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., 1953. “Studies on the ectoparasites of Galago senegalensis”, Rep. Virus Res. Inst. Entebbe, 3, 19–20.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., 1957. “Yellow fever virus: sera of galagos from Northern Rhodesia”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 7, 18–19.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R. and Ellice, J. M., 1956. “Studies on Liponyssus galagus Zumpt and yellow fever virus”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 6, 9.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., Ellice, J. M. and Hewitt, L. E., 1955 a. “Yellow fever survey—Zanzibar and Pemba”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 5, 8–10.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., Ellice, J. M., Mason, P. J. and Hewitt, L. E., 1965. “Yellow fever studies in the Central African Federation”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 6, 11–13.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R. and Hewitt, L. E., 1954. “Yellow fever protection tests on sera from wild primates, Newala District, Tanganyika”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 4, 5.Google Scholar
Lumsden, W. H. R., Hewitt, L. E., Ellice, J. M., Mason, P. J. and Santos, D., 1955 b. “Studies on Liponyssus galagus Zumpt and yellow fever virus”, Rep. E. Afr. Virus Res. Inst., 5, 16–21.Google Scholar
Mahaffy, A. F., Hughes, T. P., Smithburn, K. C. and Kirk, R., 1941. “The isolation of yellow fever virus in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 35, 141–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahaffy, A. F., Smithburn, K. C. and Hughes, T. P., 1946. “The distribution of immunity to yellow fever in Central and East Africa”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 40, 57–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mahaffy, A. F., Smithburn, K. C., Jacobs, H. R. and Gillett, J. D., 1942. “Yellow fever in Western Uganda”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 36, 9–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, P. F., 1949. “Studies on West African Forest mosquitoes. Part I. The seasonal distribution, biting cycle and vertical distribution of four of the principal species”, Bull. Ent. Res., 40, 149–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, P. F., 1952. “The sub-genus Stegomyia (Diptera, Culicidae) in the Ethiopian Region. I. A preliminary study of the distribution of species occurring in the West African sub-region with notes on taxonomy and bionomics”, Bull. Br. Mus. Nat. Hist., Ent., 2, 235–204.Google Scholar
Mattingly, P. F., 1957. “Genetical aspects of the Aedes aegypti problem. I Taxonomy and bionomics”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 51, 392–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mattingly, P. F., 1958. “Genetical aspects of the Aedes aegypti problem. II. Disease relationships, genetics and control”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 52, 5–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mouchet, R., Hoof, L. van, Duren, A., Fornara, A., Clarebout, G., Henry, E. and Henrard, C., 1934. “Résumé de I'enquête sur l'endemicité amarile au Congo belge en 1932–1933”, Bull. Off. Int. Hyg. Publ. 26, 1067–1071.Google Scholar
McClelland, G. A. H. and Weitz, B., 1963. “Serological identification of the natural hosts of Aedes aegypti (L.) and some other mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae) caught resting in vegetation in Kenya and Uganda”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 57, 214–224.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noguchi, H., 1919. “Etiology of yellow fever; transmission experiments on yellow fever”,J. Exp. Med., 29, 565–584.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osterrieth, P., Rathe, E. and Deleplanque-liegeois, P., 1961. “Isolement simultané des virus de la fièvre jaune et chikungunya a Bili (Haute-Uélé, Congo belge)”, Annh Soc. Belge Med. Trop., 41, 207–212.Google Scholar
Philip, C. B., 1929. “Preliminary report of further tests with yellow fever transmission by mosquitoes other than Aedes aegypti”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 9, 267–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Philip, C. B., 1930 a. “The experimental transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes”, Science, N.Y., 71, 614–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Philip, C. B., 1930 b. “Studies on the transmission of experimental yellow fever by mosquitoes other than Aedes”, Am. J. Trop. Med., 10, 1–16.Google Scholar
Pridie, E. D., 1934. “Résultats des récentes recherches sur la fièvre jaune au Soudan anglo-égyptien”, Bull. Off. Int. Hyg. Publ., 26, 2103–2105.Google Scholar
Pridie, E. D., 1936. “Faits récents concernant la fièvre jaune dans le Soudan anglo-égyptien, en particulier la lutte contre les moustiques”, Bull. Off. Int. Hyg. Publ., 28, 1292–1297.Google Scholar
Rickard, E. R., 1931. “The viscerotome, an instrument for the removal of fragments of liver for pathological examination without autopsy”, Q. Bull. Rockefeller Found., 5, 310–313.Google Scholar
Ross, R. W., 1953. “Studies on bush-babies (Galago spp.) experimentally infected with yellow fever virus”, Rep. Virus Res. Inst. Entebbe, 3, 5–7.Google Scholar
Ross, R. W., Haddow, A. J., Raper, A. B. and Trowell, H. C., 1953. “A fatal case of yellow fever in a European in Uganda”, E. Afr. Med.J., 30,1–11.Google Scholar
Satti, M. H. and Haseeb, M. A., 1966. “An outbreak of yellow fever in the southern Fung and Upper Nile Province, Republic of the Sudan”,J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 69, 36–44.Google Scholar
Sawyer, W. A., Kitchen, S. F., Frobisher, M. and lloyd, W., 1930. “The relationship of yellow fever of the Western Hemisphere to that of Africa and to leptospiral jaundice”,J. Exp. Med., 51, 493–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sawyer, W. A., Kitchen, S. F. and Lloyd, W., 1932. “Vaccination of humans against yellow fever with immune serum and virus fixed for mice”, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 29, 62–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawyer, W. A. and Lloyd, W., 1931. “The use of mice in tests of immunity against yellow fever”,J. Exp. Med., 54, 533–555.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sawyer, W. A. and Whitman, L., 1936. “The yellow fever immunity survey of North, East and South Africa”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 29, 397–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Serie, C., Andral, L., Lindrec, A. and Neri, P., 1964 a. “Epidemie de fièvre jaune en Ethiopie (1960–1962). Observations préliminaires”, Bull. Wld. Hlth Org., 30, 299–319.Google Scholar
Serie, C., Andral, L., Lindrec, A., Poirier, A., Jolivet, P. and Neri, P., 1964 b. “La fièvre jaune en Ethiopie”, Annls Inst. Pasteur Ethiopie, 5 2, 1–179.Google Scholar
Simpson, D. I. H., 1965. “Resistance of Galagoides demidovii thomasi (Elliot) to infection with yellow fever virus”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit, 59, 387–389.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simpson, D. I. H., Haddow, A. J., Williams, M. C. and Woodall, J. P., 1965. “Yellow fever in central Uganda, 1964. Part IV. Investigations on blood-sucking Diptera and monkeys”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59, 449–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, E. C., 1936. “Nigerian insectivora (hedgehogs and shrews), their reaction to neurotropic yellow fever virus”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59,413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smithburn, K. C., 1949. “The susceptibility of African wild animals to yellow fever. III. Pottos and galagos”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 29, 414–423.Google Scholar
Smithburn, K. C. and Haddow, A. J., 1946. “Isolation of yellow fever virus from African mosquitoes”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 26, 261–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smithburn, K. C. and Haddow, A. J., 1949 a. “The susceptibility of African wild animals to yellow fever. I. Monkeys”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 29, 389–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smithburn, K. C. and Haddow, A. J., 1949 b. “The susceptibility of African wild animals to yellow fever. II. Rodents, bush pig, hyrax and leopard”, Am. J. Trop. Med., 29, 409–414.Google Scholar
Smithburn, K. C., Haddow, A. J. and Gillett, J. D., 1948. “Rift Valley Fever. Isolation of the virus from wild mosquitoes”, Brit. J. Exp. Path., 29, 107–121,Google ScholarPubMed
Smithburn, K. C., Haddow, A. J. and Lumsden, W. H. R., 1949 a. “An outbreak of sylvan yellow fever in Uganda with Aedes (Stegomyid) africanus Theobald as principal vector and insect host of the virus”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 43, 74–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smithburn, K. C. and Haddow, A. J., 1949 b. “Rift Valley Fever; transmission of the virus by mosquitoes”, Brit.J. Exp. Path., 30, 35–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Soper, F. L., Penna, H. A., Cardoso, E., Serafin, J., Frobisher, M. and Pinheiro, J., 1933. “Yellow fever without Aedes aegypti: study of a rural epidemic in the Valle do Chanaan, Espirito Santo, Brazil, 1932”, Am.J. Hyg..18, 555–587.Google Scholar
Stokes, A., Bauer, J. H. and Hudson, N. P., 1928 a. “Experimental transmission of yellow fever to laboratory animals”, Am.J. Trop. Med., 8,103–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, A., Bauer, J. H. and Hudson, N. P., 1928 b. “The transmission of yellow fever to Macacus rhesus—Preliminary note”,J. Am. Med. Ass., 90, 253–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strode, G. K. (Ed.), 1951. Yellow fever. New York and London, McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. M., 1951. “Yellow fever: epidemiology”. In Yellow fever (Ed. By Strode, G. K.). New York and London, McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. M., Haseeb, M. A. and Work, T. H., 1955. “A regional reconnaissance on yellow fever in the Sudan, with special reference to Primate hosts”, Bull. Wld Hlth Org., 12, 711–725.Google ScholarPubMed
Theiler, M., 1930. “Susceptibility of white mice to the virus of yellow fever”, Science, N.Y., 71, 367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theiler, M., 1931. “Neutralization tests with immune yellow fever sera and a strain of yellow fever virus adapted to mice”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 25, 69–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theiler, M., 1933. “A yellow fever protection test in mice by intracerebral injection”, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit., 27, 57–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theiler, M., 1951. “Yellow fever: the virus”. In Yellow fever (Ed. by Strode, G. K.). New York and London, McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Tulloch, J. A. and Patel, K. M., 1965. “Yellow fever in central Uganda, 1964. Part II. Report of a fatal case”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59, 441–443-CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wellington, W. G., 1945. “Conditions governing the distribution of insects in the free atmosphere. Parts I-IV”, Can. Ent, 77, 21–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, M. C., Woodall, J. P. and Simpson, D. I. H., 1964. “Yellow fever in central Uganda, 1964. Part III. Virus isolation from man and laboratory studies”, Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 59, 444–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organisation, 1964. “Yellow fever in Ethiopia”, WHO Chron., 18, 390–392.Google Scholar
World Health Organisation, 1967. “Yellow fever in Africa”, WHO Chron., 27, 393–396.Google Scholar