¹ Mu-ch'iao, Hsüeh, “1953-nien t'ung-chi kung-tso chien-t'ao ho 1954-nien t'ung-chi kung-tso yao-tien”Google Scholar (“An Examination of 1953 Statistical Work and Important Points in 1954 Statistical Work”), T'ung-chi Kung-tso T'ung-hsin (Statistical Work Bulletin) (hereafter cited as TCKT), No. 1, 04 12, 1954, pp. 4–11.Google Scholar

² Mu-ch'iao, Hsüeh, “Ti-ssu chieh ch'üan-kuo t'ung-chi kung-tso hui-i tsung-chieh pao-kao”Google Scholar (“Summary Report of the Fourth All-China Statistical Work Con ference”), TCKT, No. 5, 05 17, 1955, pp. 1–7, especially p. 3Google Scholar; Mu-ch'iao, Hsüeh, “Tsai ti-wu chieh ch'üan-kuo t'ung-chi kung-tso hui-i shang ti tsung-chieh pao-kao chi-yao”Google Scholar (“Important Points in the Summary Report of the Fifth All-China Statistical Work Conference”), TCKT, No. 5, 03 14, 1956, pp. 8–13, especially p. 10.Google Scholar

³ Hsüeh, as cited in note 1, and “Ti-i-ke wu-nien chi-hua ch'i-chien wo-kuo t'ung-chi kung-tso ti ch'u-pu ching-yen ho chin-hou jen-wu” (“Introductory Experiences in Chinese Statistical Work During the First Five-Year Plan Period and Future Tasks”), TCKT, No. 21, 11 14, 1957, pp. 1–21.Google Scholar

⁴ One announcement of the 1958 reform in statistical work is contained in Ch'en Chien-fei, “P'ien-ti k'ai-hua, ch'eng-hsiang ping-chü shih-hsiea ch'üan-sheng t'ung-chi kung-tso ti ta-yo-chin” (“Everywhere Bloom, and Realize a Big Leap Forward in Statistical Work Throughout the Province in City and Village Alike”), TCKT, No. 14, 07 29, 1958, pp. 8–12.Google Scholar

Adverse judgment of State Statistical Bureau professionals on the 1958 statistical work reform is recorded in “Further Improve the Accuracy of Statistical Data for a Continued Big Leap Forward in the National Economy,” Chi-hua yü t'ung-chi (Plans and Statistics) (hereafter cited as CHYTC), translated in Extracts from China Mainland Magazines (hereafter cited as ECMM) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 181, 08 31, 1959, pp. 27–33.Google Scholar

⁵ The first announcement of 1958 economic achievements appears in “Communiqué on China's Economic Growth in 1958,” New China News Agency (hereafter cited as NCNA), 04 14, 1959Google Scholar, contained in Current Background (hereafter cited as CB) (Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General), No. 558, 04 20, 1959, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar The sharp downward revision of agricultural outputs appears in “State Statistical Bureau Revises Agricultural Production Figures for 1958,” NCNA, 08 26, 1959Google Scholar, translated in CB, No. 589, 09 1, 1959, pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

⁶ Mu-ch'iao, Hsüeh, “Po-ch'ih t'ung-chi hsüeh-chia chung ti yu-p'ai yen-lun”Google Scholar (“Criticize Rightist Discussions of Statistical Specialists”), Jen-min Jih-pao (People's Daily), 08 30, 1957, p. 7Google Scholar; and “Statistics and Statisticians,” China News Analysis, No. 196, 09 13, 1957, pp. 1–6.Google Scholar

⁷ An account of Fei Hsiao-t'ung's involvement in the Hundred Flowers Campaign illustrates the treatment accorded one of the best known Chinese sociologists by the Chinese Communist Party. See Hsiao-t'ung, Fei, “I Admit My Guilt to the People,” People's Doily, 07 14, 1957Google Scholar, translated in CB, No. 470, 07 26, 1957, pp. 10–14.Google Scholar Fei wrote this confession after publication of two of three projected instalments of “Ch'ung-fang chiang-ts'un” (“River Village Revisited”), Hsin Kuan-ch'a (New Observer), Nos. 11 and 12, 06 1 and 16, 1957.Google Scholar These two articles reported lower living standards in Hsien-kung Village in 1956 than in 1936, when he had last worked there, gathering data summarized in Peasant Life in China. Wu Ching-ch'ao, Ch'en Ta, and others were similarly treated.

⁸ “Wei-le pang-chu kuo-chia t'ung-chi chü cheng-feng Hsüeh Mu-ch'iao chü-chang yao-ch'ing Cuing Chin pu-fen ching-chi-hsüeh t'ung-chi-hsüeh chiao-shou chü-hsing tso-t'an-hui (“Director of the State Statistical Bureau, Hsüeh Mu-ch'iao, Invites Professors of Economics and Statistics in Peking and Tientsin to a Symposium to Help in the Rectification of the State Statistical Bureau”), TCKT, No. 12, 06 29, 1959, pp. 1–10.Google Scholar

⁹ Chieh, Tung, “Chien-li wu-ch'an chieh-chi jen-k'ou hsüeh”Google Scholar (“Establish a Proletarian Demography”), Hsin Chien-she (New Construction), No. 4, 04 3, 1957, pp. 1–3.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Yin-ch'u, Ma, “Wo-ti che-hsüeh ssu-hsiang ho ching-chi li-lun”Google Scholar (“My Philosophical Thought and Economic Theory”), Hsin Chien-she (New Construction), No. 11, 11 7, 1959, pp. 21–55Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 195, 01 11, 1960, pp. 1–46.Google Scholar

¹¹ “Appointments and Removals Approved by State Council at its 98th Meeting,” NCNA, 07 25, 1957Google Scholar, translated in Survey of the China Mainland Press (hereafter cited as SCMP) Hong Kong: U.S. Consulate-General, No. 2244, p. 1.

¹² “Non-Productive Populations in Cities Too Large and Growing Too Fast,” NCNA, 07 25, 1957, translated in SCMP, No. 1582, pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

¹³ Mu-ch'iao, Hsüeh, “National Construction and Overall Arrangements for People's Livelihood,” Hsüeh-hsi (Study), No. 3, 02 3, 1958Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 129, 05 19, 1958, pp. 38–39.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Of the 1957 total of 24 million workers and employees, 20 million are reported as urban in Hsü Min, “K'ao-lü sheng-huo wen-t'i yao-yu ch'üan-chü” (“Consider Problems of Livelihood in Terms of the Whole”), Kung-jen Jih-pao (Daily Worker) (hereafter cited as KJJP), 12 20, 1957, p. 3.Google Scholar Remaining 1957 non-agricultural employment, persons other than workers and employees, is allocated according to a total of 3,460,000 urban handicraftsmen, reported in Sung P'ing, “The Problem of Employment,” Lao-tung (Labour) (hereafter cited as LT), No. 21, 10 4, 1957Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 117, 02 3, 1958, p. 19.Google Scholar Similar allocations are made arbitrarily in the following employment categories for which reported urban employment data are lacking: 1 million urban of 2·5 million persons engaged in traditional forms of transport, 1 million urban of 1·5 million persons engaged in traditional forms of Chinese medicine, 1·4 million urban of 3·6 million peddlers and small merchants, 500,000 urban of 1·5 million fishing operatives, 500,000 urban of 500,000 persons engaged in barbering, hotel-keeping, bathhouse and photographic studio operation, and cleaning and dyeing.

¹⁵ Claims of 100 million peasants engaged in water conservancy projects in the winter of 1957–58 and 60 million persons engaged in smelting iron in backyard furnaces indicate something of the magnitude of the labour force deployed from time to time in such short-term projects. Since the State Statistical Bureau has never reported such labour in its economic communiqués, it is assumed that no regular accounting system was established to record it, and hence that no basis exists for estimating it as a whole from year to year.

¹⁶ See Appendix.

¹⁷ Employment in the modern sector is defined as the number of workers and employees in the non-agricultural branches of the economy, derived by subtracting the number of workers and employees in state farms and forestry from the total number of workers and employees. See Appendix.

¹⁸ Employment in the traditional sector is defined as the total number of persons other than workers and employees engaged in the non-agricultural branches of the economy. See Appendix.

¹⁹ “Wo-kuo kung-yeh chien-she ti fei-yo fa-chan” (“The Flying Development of Industry in China”), T'ung-chi Yen-chiu (Statistical Research) (hereafter cited as TCYC), No. 9, 09 23, 1958, p. 5.Google Scholar

²⁰ “Progress of the Chinese Working Class,” NCNA, 11 28, 1957, contained in SCMP, No. 1665, p. 32.Google Scholar

²¹ “Kuan-yü chih-kung sheng-huo kai-shan ch'ing-k'uang ti t'ung-chi tzu-liao” (“Statistical Data Relating to the Rising Standards of Living of Workers and Employees”), Data Section, TCKT, No. 14, 07 29, 1957, p. 13Google Scholar; and “Chi-pen chien-she kung-tso ti ta-yo-chin” (“The Big Leap Forward in Basic Construction”), TCYC, No. 9, 09 23, 1958, p. 10Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 153, 01 12, 1959, p. 34.Google Scholar

²² See notes 19 and 21, and Vinogradov, N. P., “Rabochiy klass Kitayskoy narodnoy respubliki”Google Scholar (“The Working Class of the Chinese People's Republic”), Problemy vostokovedeniya) (Problems of the Far East), No. 2, 1960, p. 84Google Scholar, quoting Wo-kuo ti kuo-min ching-chi chien-she ho jen-min sheng-huo (China's National Economic Construction and the People's Livelihood) (Peking: State Statistical Bureau, 1958), p. 292.Google Scholar

²³ See Appendix for sources of data on the number of persons other than workers and employees engaged in trade, traditional forms of transport, and handicrafts.

²⁴ Urban population totals from 1952 through 1956 are reported in “Data on China's Population from 1949 to 1956,” TCKT, No. 11, 06 14, 1957Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 91, 07 22, 1957, pp. 23–24.Google Scholar

²⁵ The 1957 figure is extrapolated as a year-end total from 1956 and 1957 annual average urban population totals in Ni, Ernest, Distribution of the Urban and Rural Population of Mainland China: 1953 and 1958 (Washington: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1960)Google Scholar, International Population Reports, Series P-95, No. 56, table B, p. 4.

²⁶ P'ing, Sung, “The Problem of Employment,” LT, No. 21, 10 4, 1957Google Scholar, translated in ECMM, No. 117, pp. 22–23.Google Scholar

²⁷ The following sources indicate apparently ineffective attempts to control migration from farm to city from 1952 through 1957: “Notice of Central-South Military Administrative Committee on Prevention of Flow of Rural Labour Power to Cities,” Ch'ang-chiang Jih-pao (Yangtse Daily), 10 21, 1952, translated in SCMP, No. 444, pp. 30–31Google Scholar; “We Should Dissuade Peasants From Blindly Moving Towards Cities, Declares Social Affairs Department, Ministry of Interior,” People's Daily, 11 26, 1952, translated in SCMP, No. 468, pp. 11–12Google Scholar; “Government Administration Council Directive on Dissuasion of Peasants From Blind Influx Into Cities,” NCNA, 04 17, 1953, translated in SCMP, No. 554, pp. 24–25Google Scholar; “Central People's Government Ministry of Interior and Ministry of Labour Issue Joint Directive Concerning Continued Implementation of Directive Advising Against Blind Influx of Peasants Into Cities,” dated 03 12, 1954Google Scholar, People's Daily, 03 15, 1954, translated in SCMP, No. 774, pp. 8–9Google Scholar; “Mobilise the Non-Productive Population in Cities to Return to Rural Areas for Production,” Kuang-ming Jih-pao, 12 29, 1955, translated in SCMP, No. 1203, pp. 8–9Google Scholar; “Non-Productive Populations in Cities Too Large and Growing Too Fast,” NCNA, 07 25, 1957, translated in SCMP, No. 1582, pp. 1–2Google Scholar; “The State Council's Provisional Regulations Governing Recruitment of Temporary Workers in Rural Areas by Various Units,” and Ma Wen-jui (Minister of Labour), “Explanations of State Council's Provisional Regulations Governing Recruitment of Temporary Workers in Rural Areas by Various Units,” NCNA, 12 13, 1957, translated in SCMP, No. 1699, pp. 22–26.Google Scholar

²⁸ See Appendix.

²⁹ Sources of data on 7·9 million industrial, 1·9 million construction and 1·9 million transport workers and employees are given in notes 19, 21 and 22.

³⁰ The sources of data on the number of industrial workers and employees in 1958 are given in note 31. The 1958 total of 5·3 million construction workers and employees is reported in The Great Ten Years, p. 44.Google Scholar Sources of data used to estimate a 1958 year-end total of 3,278,000 workers and employees in transport, posts, and telecommunications are: “Railway Trade Union Congress Opens,” NCNA, 04 7, 1958, contained in SCMP, No. 1749, p. 3Google Scholar; The Great Ten Years, pp. 131 and 137Google Scholar; Cheng-ts'ao, Lü, “Ten Years of Railroad Work,” People's Daily, 09 28, 1959, translated in CB, No. 607, p. 17Google Scholar; “Railway Workers Evoke New Upsurge of the Movement for Production Increase and Economy,” KJJP, 09 18, 1959, translated in SCMP, No. 2111, p. 11Google Scholar; Jen-min Yu-tien (People's Posts and Telecommunications), No. 15, 05 22, 1959, p. 5Google Scholar; “National Conference of Outstanding Communications Workers Opens,” NCNA, 04 20, 1956, translated in SCMP, No. 1281, p. 7.Google Scholar

³¹ Sources of data used to estimate industrial employment at the end of 1958 include in addition to that given in note 19: “On Raising of Labour Efficiency,” People's Daily, 05 15, 1959, p. 1, translated in SCMP, No. 2024, p. 1Google Scholar; Teng Chieh, as cited in Appendix under “Handicrafts”; “Chua-chin shih-chi tseng-ch'an yuanyen” (“Seize the Opportunity to Produce More Crude Salt”), KJJP, 05 4, 1960, p. 2Google Scholar; Ch'i-hua, Mao, “Ch'ung-fen fa-hui ‘ke ch'in so nung,’ pao-cheng sheng-ch'an chien-she keng ta yo-chin”Google Scholar (“Fully Bring Out ‘From Each According to His Ability’ and Guarantee a Bigger Leap Forward in Production and Construction”), LT, No. 1, 01 3, 1959, p. 6Google Scholar; “Community Workshops and Service Depôts Popular in China,” NCNA, 01 8, 1960, contained in SCMP, No. 2176, p. 6.Google Scholar

³² Substantial transfers of workers and employees from trade and government administration to industry in 1958 are mentioned in “State Statistical Bureau's Report on China's Economic Growth in First Six Months of 1958,” NCNA, 08 2, 1958, contained in SCMP, No. 1830, p. 21.Google Scholar See also Ch'i-hua, Mao, loc. cit.Google Scholar

³³ On the possibility and need for raising output among workers newly hired in 1958 see: Ta-lin, Ch'en, “Raising Labour Productivity Is an Important Task,”Google ScholarKJJP, 03 25, 1959, translated in SCMP, No. 1997, pp. 5–8Google Scholar; “Fully Develop the Potentiality of Manpower Within Our Enterprises,” editorial, People's Daily, 03 13, 1959, translated in SCMP, No. 1982, pp. 6–9Google Scholar; “On Raising of Labour Efficiency,” editorial, People's Daily, 05 19, 1959, translated in SCMP, No. 2024, pp. 6–9.Google Scholar

³⁴ Data on aggregate worker and employee wage-payments from 1957 through 1959 are contained in: Po I-po, “Draft Plan for Development of the National Economy in 1958,” NCNA, 02 13, 1958, contained in CB, No. 494, p. 19Google Scholar; I-wen, Chao, “Ta-yo-chin i-lai ling-shou shih-ch'ang ti pien-hua”Google Scholar (“Changes in the Retail Market Since the Big Leap Forward”), Chung-yang ho-tso t'ung-hsin (Centred Co-operative Bulletin), No. 5, 05 11, 1959, p. 30Google Scholar; Hsin-hsüeh, Hsü, “High Speed and Proportionate Development of the National Economy,” Hung Ch'i (Red Flag), No. 3, 02 1, 1960, translated in ECMM, No. 203, p. 2Google Scholar; Fu-ch'un, Li, “Text of Vice-Premier Li Fu-ch'un's Report on the Draft 1960 Economic Plan,”Google ScholarNCNA, 03 30, 1960, contained in CB, No. 615, p. 20.Google Scholar

³⁵ Based on estimates made by the Foreign Manpower Research Office, Bureau of the Census, U.S Dept. of Commerce.

³⁶ En-lai, Chou, “The Great Decade,”Google ScholarNCNA, 10 6, 1959, contained in CB, No. 598, p. 5.Google Scholar

³⁷ See note 35.

³⁸ It is assumed that of the 20 million persons reported added to the urban population from 1958 to 1960, the major portion was added in 1958, raising the total urban population from 94·4 to 110 million persons. Sources of data on urban population growth in these years are: “How Chinese Working Class Has Grown to 32 million,” NCNA, 04 26, 1959, contained in SCMP, No. 2007, p. 14Google Scholar; Chou Po-p'ing, “Supply of Food Grains in China This Year,” China News Service, Canton, 10 3, 1959, contained in SCMP, No. 2126, p. 16Google Scholar; Yü-chi, Ch'eng, “Fully Understand the Great Significance of Agriculture as the Foundation,” Chung-kuo Ch'ing-nien Poo (China Youth Daily), 07 7, 1960, translated in SCMP, No. 2319, p. 15Google Scholar; “Ch'üan-tang tung-shou, ch'üan-min tung-shou, ta-pan nung-yeh, ta-pan liang-shih” (“Let the Whole Party Start to Work, the Whole People Start to Work, to Farm, to Raise Grain”), editorial, People's Daily, 08 25, 1960, p. 1.Google Scholar

³⁹ See note 35.

⁴⁰ See note 38.

⁴¹ See note 35.

⁴² Ibid.

⁴³ Ibid.

⁴⁴ Ibid.

⁴⁵ The increase in the number of female workers and employees in 1958 is reported in “Tsai Chang Addresses Women's Rally,” NCNA, 03 7, 1959, contained in SCMP, No. 1971, p. 8.Google Scholar