Book contents
- Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern AfricaPhysical and Human Dimensions
- Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Africa
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- 1 The context of Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 2 A brief geological history of southern Africa
- 3 A continental-scale perspective on landscape evolution in southern Africa during the Cenozoic
- 4 Hominin origins and evolution during the Neogene
- 5 Hominin evolution in Africa during the Quaternary
- 6 Quaternary environmental change on the southern African coastal plain
- 7 Dating the southern African landscape
- 8 Glacial and periglacial geomorphology
- 9 Colluvial deposits and slope instability
- 10 Desert dune environments
- 11 Changes in fluvial systems during the Quaternary
- 12 Wetlands in southern Africa
- 13 Sandy coasts
- 14 Environmental change during the Pleistocene and Holocene: Estuaries and lagoons of southern Africa
- 15 Soils and duricrusts
- 16 Karstic systems
- 17 Terrestrial ecosystem changes in the late Quaternary
- 18 Faunal evidence for mid- and late Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 19 Pollen, charcoal and plant macrofossil evidence of Neogene and Quaternary environments in southern Africa
- 20 Minerogenic microfossil records of Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 21 Development of the archaeological record in southern Africa during the Earlier Stone Age
- 22 Development of the archaeological record during the Middle Stone Age of South Africa
- 23 Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers and herders
- 24 Southernmost Africans, archaeology and the environment during the Holocene
- 25 Landscape–climate–human relations in the Quaternary of southern Africa
- Index
- References
5 - Hominin evolution in Africa during the Quaternary
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 June 2016
Book contents
- Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern AfricaPhysical and Human Dimensions
- Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern Africa
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- 1 The context of Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 2 A brief geological history of southern Africa
- 3 A continental-scale perspective on landscape evolution in southern Africa during the Cenozoic
- 4 Hominin origins and evolution during the Neogene
- 5 Hominin evolution in Africa during the Quaternary
- 6 Quaternary environmental change on the southern African coastal plain
- 7 Dating the southern African landscape
- 8 Glacial and periglacial geomorphology
- 9 Colluvial deposits and slope instability
- 10 Desert dune environments
- 11 Changes in fluvial systems during the Quaternary
- 12 Wetlands in southern Africa
- 13 Sandy coasts
- 14 Environmental change during the Pleistocene and Holocene: Estuaries and lagoons of southern Africa
- 15 Soils and duricrusts
- 16 Karstic systems
- 17 Terrestrial ecosystem changes in the late Quaternary
- 18 Faunal evidence for mid- and late Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 19 Pollen, charcoal and plant macrofossil evidence of Neogene and Quaternary environments in southern Africa
- 20 Minerogenic microfossil records of Quaternary environmental change in southern Africa
- 21 Development of the archaeological record in southern Africa during the Earlier Stone Age
- 22 Development of the archaeological record during the Middle Stone Age of South Africa
- 23 Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers and herders
- 24 Southernmost Africans, archaeology and the environment during the Holocene
- 25 Landscape–climate–human relations in the Quaternary of southern Africa
- Index
- References
Summary
Abstract
During the Quaternary, the hominin evolutionary tree can be best characterised as bushy. Fossil discoveries in recent decades have shown that different hominin taxa co-existed more than was previously thought when Homo habilis was first deemed the earliest member of genus Homo. Such phylogenetic complexity at the origin of Homo is indicative of an adaptive radiation, in this case often attributed to a palaeoclimatic drying trend in Africa. Establishing evolutionary relationships amongst different taxa at the origins of Homo, and ultimately with the descendent species of one of them, Homo erectus, is made difficult by their mosaic of primitive and derived morphological characteristics. Linking these morphologies with coeval environmental change is made difficult by conflicting signals between regional palaeoclimate indicators. By the end of the Quaternary, hominin behavioural and cognitive changes arguably become more evident in the ‘evolving’ archaeological record of southern Africa than in its fossil record. New discoveries and new types of morphological analyses are clearly needed for sharpening phylogenetic resolution, particularly early in the Quaternary.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Quaternary Environmental Change in Southern AfricaPhysical and Human Dimensions, pp. 67 - 87Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2016
References
Aiello, L. C. and Wheeler, P. (1995). The expensive tissue hypothesis: The brain and digestive system in human and primate evolution. Current Anthropology, 36, 199–221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 623–651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antón, S. C., Leonard, W. R. and Robertson, M. L. (2002). An ecomorphological model of the initial hominid dispersal from Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 43, 773–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Antón, S. C., Potts, R. and Aiello, L. C. (2014). Evolution of early Homo: An integrated biological perspective. Science, 345, 45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asfaw, B., White, T., Lovejoy, O., Latimer, B., Simpson, S. and Suwa, G. (1999). Australopithecus garhi: A new species of early hominid from Ethiopia. Science, 284, 629–635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, Q. D., Gray, R. D. and Drummond, A. J. (2008). mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and reveals a major southern Asian chapter in human prehistory. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 25, 468–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Backwell, L. R. and d’Errico, F. (2003). Additional evidence on the early hominid bone tools from Swartkrans with reference to spatial distribution of lithic and organic artefacts. South African Journal of Science, 99, 259–267.Google Scholar
Backwell, L. R. and d’Errico, F. (2008). Early hominid bone tools from Drimolen, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35, 2880–2894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behrensmeyer, A. K. (2006). Climate change and human evolution. Science, 311, 476–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, L. R., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K. J., Dirks, P. H. G. M. and Kibii, J. M. (2010). Australopithecus sediba: A new species of Homo-like australopithecine from South Africa. Science, 328, 195–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berna, F., Goldberg, P., Horwitz, L. K., Brink, J., Holt, S., Bamford, M. and Chazan, M. (2012). Microstratigraphic evidence of in situ fire in the Acheulean strata of Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape province, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, E1215–E1220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bird, M. I., Fifield, L. K., Santos, G. M., Beaumont, P. B., Zhou, Y., Di Tada, M. I., Hausladen, P. A. (2003). Radiocarbon dating from 40–60 ka BP at Border Cave, South Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 22, 943–947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenschine, R. J., Peters, C. R., Masao, F. T., Clarke, R. J., Deino, A. L., Hay, R. L., Swisher, C. C., Stanistreet, I. G., Ashley, G. M., McHenry, L. J., Sikes, N. E., van der Merwe, N. J., Tactikos, J. C., Cushing, A. E., Deocampo, D. M., Njau, J. K. and Ebert, J. I. (2003). Late Pliocene Homo and hominid land use from western Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Science, 299, 1217–1221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brain, C. K. and Sillen, A. (1988). Evidence from the Swartkrans Cave for the earliest use of fire. Nature, 336, 464–466.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bramble, D. M. and Lieberman, D. E. (2004). Endurance running and the evolution of Homo. Nature, 432, 345–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bräuer, G. (2008). The origin of modern anatomy: By speciation or intraspecific evolution? Evolutionary Anthropology, 17, 22–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bromage, T. G., Schrenk, F. and Zonneveld, F. W. (1995). Paleoanthropology of the Malawi Rift: An early hominid mandible from the Chiwondo Beds, northern Malawi. Journal of Human Evolution, 28, 71–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, R. (1938). The Pleistocene anthropoid apes of South Africa. Nature, 142, 377–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, R. and Robinson, J. T. (1949). A new type of fossil man. Nature, 164, 322–323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, P., Sutikna, T., Morwood, M. J., Socjono, R. P., Jatmiko, , Wayhu Saptomo, E. and Awe Due, R. (2004). A new small-bodied hominin from the late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature, 431, 1055–1061.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, M. C. and Tishkoff, S. A. (2009). African genetic diversity: Implications for human demographic history, modern human origins, and complex disease mapping. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 9, 403–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, K. J., Stout, D., Jashashvili, T., de Ruiter, D. J., Tafforeau, P., Carlson, K. and Berger, L. R. (2011). The Endocast of MH1, Australopithecus sediba. Science, 333, 1402–1407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerling, T. E., Manthi, F. K., Mbua, E. N., Leakey, L. N., Leakey, M. G., Leakey, R. E., Brown, F. H., Grine, F. E., Hart, J. A., Kaleme, P., Roche, H., Uno, K. T. and Wood, B. A. (2013). Stable isotope-based diet reconstructions of Turkana Basin hominins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 10501–10506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerling, T. E., Mbua, E., Kirera, F. M., Manthi, F. K., Grine, F. E., Leakey, M. G., Sponheimer, M. and Uno, K. T. (2011b). Diet of Paranthropus boisei in the early Pleistocene of East Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 9337–9341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cerling, T. E., Wynn, J. G., Andanje, S. A., Bird, M. I., Korir, D. K., Levin, N. E., Mace, W., Macharia, A. N., Quade, J. and Remien, C. H. (2011a). Woody cover and hominin environments in the past 6 million years. Nature, 476, 51–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Churchill, S. E., Holliday, T. W., Carlson, K. J., Jashashvili, T., Macias, M. E., Mathews, S., Sparling, T. L., Schmid, P., de Ruiter, D. J. and Berger, L. R. (2013). The upper limb of Australopithecus sediba. Science, 340, 1233477-1–1233477-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Churchill, S. E., Pearson, O. M., Grine, F. E., Trinkaus, E. and Holliday, T. W. (1996). Morphological affinities of the proximal ulna from Klasies River Mouth Main Site: Archaic or modern? Journal of Human Evolution, 31, 213–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, R. J. (1985). Australopithecus and early Homo in southern Africa. In Ancestors: The Hard Evidence, ed. Delson, E.. New York: Alan R. Liss, pp. 171–177.Google Scholar
Clarke, R. J. (2012). A Homo habilis maxilla and other newly-discovered hominid fossils from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution, 63, 418–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, R. J. (2013). Australopithecus from Sterkfontein Caves, South Africa. In The Palaeobiology of Australopithecus, ed. Reed, K. E., Fleagle, J. G. and Leakey, R. E.. Amsterdam: Springer, pp. 105–123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collard, M. and Wood, B. A. (2007). Defining the genus Homo. In Handbook of Paleoanthropology, Vol. 3 of Phylogeny of hominids, ed. Henke, W. and Tattersall, I.. Berlin: Springer, pp. 1575–1611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conrad, D. F., Jakobsson, M., Coop, G., Wen, X., Wall, J. D., Rosenberg, N. A. and Pritchard, J. K. (2006). A worldwide survey of haplotype variation and linkage disequilibrium in the human genome. Nature Genetics, 38, 1251–1260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Constantino, P. and Wood, B. (2007). The evolution of Zinjanthropus boisei. Evolutionary Anthropology, 16, 49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curnoe, D. (2010). A review of early Homo in southern Africa focusing on cranial, mandibular and dental remains, with the description of a new species (Homo gautengensis sp. nov.). HOMO – Journal of Comparative Human Biology, 61, 151–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curnoe, D. and Tobias, P. V. (2006). Description, new reconstruction, comparative anatomy, and classification of the Sterkfontein Stw 53 cranium, with discussions about the taxonomy of other southern African early Homo remains. Journal of Human Evolution, 50, 36–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Heinzelin, J., Clark, J. D., White, T. W., Hart, W., Renne, P., WoldeGabriel, G., Beyene, Y. and Vrba, E. (1999). Environment and behavior of 2.5-million-year-old Bouri hominids. Science, 284, 625–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Ruiter, D. J., Pickering, R., Steininger, C. M., Kramers, J. D., Hancox, P. J., Churchill, S. E., Berger, L. R. and Backwell, L. (2009). New Australopithecus robustus fossils and associated U-Pb dates from Cooper’s Cave (Gauteng, South Africa). Journal of Human Evolution, 56, 497–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
d’Errico, F. and Backwell, L. R. (2009). Assessing the function of early hominin bone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science, 36, 1764–1773.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeSilva, J. M., Holt, K. G., Churchill, S. E., Carlson, K. J., Walker, C. S., Zipfel, B. and Berger, L. R. (2013). The lower limb and mechanics of walking in Australopithecus sediba. Science, 340, 1232999-1–1232999-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Villiers, H. (1973). Human skeletal remains from Border Cave, Ingwavumu District, KwaZulu, South Africa. Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 28, 229–256.Google Scholar
Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Pickering, T. R., Baquedano, E., Mabulla, A., Mark, D. F., Musiba, C., Bunn, H. T., Uribelarrea, D., Smith, V., Diez-Martin, F., Pérez-González, A., Sánchez, P., Santonja, M., Barboni, D., Gidna, A., Ashley, G., Yravedra, J., Heaton, J. L. and Arriaza, M. C. (2013). First partial skeleton of a 1.34-million-year-old Paranthropus boisei from Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. PLoS One, 8 (12): e80347, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Pickering, T. R. and Bunn, H. T. (2011). Reply to McPherron et al.: Doubting Dikika is about data, not paradigms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, E117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drennen, M. R. D. (1953). A preliminary note on the Saldanha skull. South African Journal of Science, 50, 7–11.Google Scholar
Dusseldorp, G., Lombard, M. and Wurz, S. (2013). Pleistocene Homo and the updated Stone Age sequence of South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 109, Art. #0042, 7pp, doi:10.1590/sajs.2013/20120042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Falk, D., Hildebolt, C., Smith, K., Morwood, M. J., Sutikna, T., Jatmiko, , Saptomo, E. W. and Prior, F. (2009). LB1’s virtual endocast, microcephaly, and hominin brain evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 57, 597–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleagle, J. G. and Grine, F. E. (2014). The genus Homo in Africa. In The Cambridge World Prehistory – Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, Vol. 1, ed. Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 85–105.Google Scholar
Gibbard, P. and Cohen, K. M. (2008). Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years. Episodes, 31, 243–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grine, F. E. (1986). Dental evidence for dietary differences in Australopithecus and Paranthropus: A quantitative analysis of permanent molar microwear. Journal of Human Evolution, 15, 783–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grine, F. E. (Ed.) (1988). Evolutionary History of the ‘robust’ Australopithecines. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 546pp.Google Scholar
Grine, F. E. (2000). Middle Stone Age human fossils from Die Kelders Cave 1, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 129–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grine, F. E. (2005). Early Homo at Swartkrans, South Africa: A review of the evidence and an evaluation of recently proposed morphs. South African Journal of Science, 101, 43–52.Google Scholar
Grine, F. E., Bailey, R. M., Harvati, K., Nathan, R. P., Morris, A. G., Henderson, G. M., Ribot, I. and Pike, A. W. G. (2007). Late Pleistocene human skull from Hofmeyr, South Africa, and modern human origins. Science, 315, 226–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grine, F. E., Henshilwood, C. S. and Sealy, J. C. (2000). Human remains from Blombos Cave, South Africa: (1997–1998 excavations). Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 755–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grine, F. E., Jungers, W. L. and Schultz, J. (1996). Phenetic affinities among early Homo crania from East and South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 30, 189–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grine, F. E., Jungers, W. L., Tobias, P. V. and Pearson, O. M. (1995). Fossil Homo femur from Berg Aukas, Northern Namibia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 97, 151–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grine, F. E. and Klein, R. G. (1985). Pleistocene and Holocene human remains from Equus cave, South Africa. Anthropology, 8, 55–98.Google Scholar
Grine, F. E. and Klein, R. G. (1993). Late Pleistocene human remains from the Sea Harvest site, Saldanha Bay, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 89, 145–152.Google Scholar
Grine, F. E., Smith, H. F., Heesy, C. P. and Smith, E. J. (2009). Phenetic affinities of Plio-Pleistocene Homo fossils from South Africa: Molar cusp proportions. In The First Humans: Origins and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo, ed. Grine, F. E., Fleagle, J. G. and Leakey, R. E.. Berlin: Springer, pp. 49–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grün, R., Beaumont, P., Tobias, P. V. and Eggins, S. (2003). On the age of Border Cave 5 human mandible. Journal of Human Evolution, 45, 155–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grün, R., Brink, J. S., Spooner, N. A., Taylor, L., Stringer, C. B., Franciscus, R. G. and Murray, A. S. (1996). Direct dating of Florisbad hominid. Nature, 382, 500–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haeusler, M. and McHenry, H. M. (2004). Body proportions of Homo habilis reviewed. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 433–465.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartwig-Scherer, S. and Martin, R. D. (1991). Was “Lucy” more human than her “child”? Observations on early hominid postcranial skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution, 21, 439–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henn, B. M., Gignoux, C. R., Jobin, M., Granka, J. M., Macpherson, J. M., Kidd, J. M., Rodríguez-Botigué, L., Ramachandran, S., Hon, L., Brisbin, A., Lin, A. A., Underhill, P. A., Comas, D., Kidd, K. K., Norman, P. J., Parham, P., Bustamante, C. D., Mountain, J. L. and Feldman, M. W. (2011). Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 5154–5162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, A., Ward, S., Deino, A., Curtis, G. and Drake, R. (1992). Earliest Homo. Nature, 355, 719–722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holliday, T. W. (2012). Body size, body shape, and the circumscription of the Genus Homo. Current Anthropology, 53 (supplement 6), S330–S345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holloway, R. L., Broadfield, D. C. and Yuan, M. S. (2004). The Human Fossil Record, Vol. 3: Brain Endocasts – the Paleoneurological Evidence. Hoboken NJ, Wiley-Liss, 315pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, A. R. and Tobias, P. V. (1977). A fossil skull probably of the genus Homo from Sterkfontein, Transvaal. Nature, 265, 310–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johanson, D., Masao, F., Eck, G., White, T., Walter, R., Kimbel, W., Asfaw, B., Manega, P., Ndessokia, P. and Suwa, G. (1987). New partial skeleton of Homo habilis from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Nature, 327, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jungers, W. L., Larson, S. G., Harcourt-Smith, W., Morwood, M. J., Sutikna, T., Awe Due, R. and Djubiantono, T. (2009). Descriptions of the lower limb skeleton of Homo floresiensis. Journal of Human Evolution, 57, 538–554.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keyser, A. W., Menter, C. G., Moggi-Cecchi, J., Pickering, T. R. and Berger, L. R. (2000). Drimolen: A new hominid-bearing site in Gauteng, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 96, 193–197.Google Scholar
Kibii, J. M., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K. J., Reed, N. D., de Ruiter, D. J. and Berger, L. R. (2011). A partial pelvis of Australopithecus sediba. Science, 333, 1407–1411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimbel, W. H., Johanson, D. C. and Rak, Y. (1997). Systematic assessment of a maxilla of Homo from Hadar, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 103, 235–262.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, R. G. (2009). The Human Career – Human Biological and Cultural Origins. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 840pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, R. G., Avery, G., Cruz-Uribe, K. and Steele, T. E. (2006). The mammalian fauna associated with an archaic hominin skullcap and later Acheulean artifacts from Elandsfontein, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 52, 164–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, R. G. and Cruz-Uribe, K. (1991). The bovids from Elandsfontein, South Africa, and their implications of the age, palaeoenvironment and origins of the site. African Archaeological Review, 9, 21–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramer, A., Donnelly, S. M., Kidder, S. D., Ousley, S. D. and Olah, S. M. (1995). Craniometric variation in large-bodied hominoids: Testing the single-species hypothesis for Homo habilis. Journal of Human Evolution, 29, 443–462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuman, K. and Clarke, R. J. (2000). Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associations for Sterkfontein, Member 5. Journal of Human Evolution, 38, 827–847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, C. A. and Tishkoff, S. A. (2009). Genetic structure in African populations: Implications for human demographic history. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology, 74, 395–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, L. S. B. (1959). A new fossil skull from Olduvai. Nature, 184, 491–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leakey, L. S. B., Tobias, P. V. and Napier, J. R. (1964). A new species of genus Homo from Olduvai Gorge. Nature, 202, 7–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, M. D., Clarke, R. J. and Leakey, L. S. B. (1971). New hominid skull from Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Nature, 232, 308–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, M. G., Spoor, F., Brown, F. H., Gathogo, P. N., Kiarie, C., Leakey, L. N. and McDougall, I. (2001). New hominin genus from eastern Africa shows diverse middle Pliocene lineages. Nature, 410, 433–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, R. E. F. (1973). Evidence of an advanced Plio-Pleistocene hominid from East Rudolf, Kenya. Nature, 242, 447–450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, R. E. F. (1974). Further evidence of Lower Pleistocene hominids from East Rudolf, North Kenya, 1973. Nature, 248, 653–656.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, R. E. F. and Walker, A. C. (1985). Further hominids from the Plio-Pleistocene of Koobi Fora, Kenya. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 67, 135–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leakey, R. E., Walker, A., Ward, C. V. and Grausz, H. M. (1989). A partial skeleton of a gracile hominid from the Upper Burgi Member of the Koobi Fora formation, East Lake Turkana, Kenya. In Hominidae: Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress of Human Paleontology, ed. Giacobini, G.. Milan: Editoriale Jaca Book, pp. 167–173.Google Scholar
Lordkipanidze, D., Jashashvili, T., Vekua, A., Ponce de León, M. S., Zollikofer, C. P. E., Rightmire, G. P., Pontzer, H., Ferring, R., Oms, O., Tappen, M., Bukhsianidze, M., Agusti, J., Kahlke, R., Kiladze, G., Martinez-Navarro, B., Mouskhelishvili, A., Nioradze, M. and Rook, L. (2007). Postcranial evidence from early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia. Nature, 449, 305–310.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lordkipanidze, D., Ponce de León, M. S., Margvelashvili, A., Rak, Y., Rightmire, G. P., Vekua, A. and Zollikofer, C. P. E. (2013). A complete skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the evolutionary biology of early Homo. Science, 342, 326–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marean, C. W., Nilssen, P. J., Brown, K., Jerardino, A. and Stynder, D. (2004). Paleoanthropological investigations of Middle Stone Age sites at Pinnacle Point, Mossel Bay (South Africa): Archaeology and hominid remains from the 2000 field season. Paleoanthropology, 1, 14–83.Google Scholar
McBrearty, S. and Brooks, A. S. (2000). The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 453–563.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrossin, M. L. (1992). Human molars from Later Pleistocene deposits of Witkrans Cave, Gaap Escarpment, Kalahari margin. Human Evolution, 7, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDougall, I., Brown, F. H. and Fleagle, J. G. (2005). Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature, 433, 733–736.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McPherron, S. P., Alemseged, Z., Marean, C. W., Wynn, J. G., Reed, D., Geraads, D., Bobe, R. and Béarat, H. A. (2010). Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature, 466, 857–860.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moggi-Cecchi, J., Menter, C., Boccone, S. and Keyser, A. (2010). Early hominin dental remains from the Plio-Pleistocene of Drimolen, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 58, 374–405.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Reilly, J. X., Jbabdi, S., Rushworth, M. F. S. and Behrens, T. E. J. (2013). Brain systems for probabilistic and dynamic prediction: Computational specificity and integration. PLoS Biology, 11(9), e1001662, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001662.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearson, O. M. (2008). Statistical and biological definition of “anatomically modern” humans: Suggestions for a unified approach to modern morphology. Evolutionary Anthropology, 17, 38–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearson, O. M. and Grine, F. E. (1996). Morphology of the Border Cave hominid ulna and humerus. South African Journal of Science, 92, 231–236.Google Scholar
Pontzer, H. (2012). Ecological energetics in early Homo. Current Anthropology, 53 (supplement 6), S346–S358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, R. (1998). Environmental hypotheses of hominin evolution. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 41, 93–136.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prat, S., Brugal, J.-P., Tiercelin, J.-J., Barrat, J.-A., Bohn, M., Delagnes, A., Harmand, S., Kimeu, K., Kibunjia, M., Texier, P.-J. and Roche, H. (2005). First occurrence of early Homo in the Nachukui Formation (West Turkana, Kenya) at 2.3–2.4 Myr. Journal of Human Evolution, 49, 230–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, K. E. (1997). Early hominid evolution and ecological change through the African Plio-Pleistocene. Journal of Human Evolution, 32, 289–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richmond, B. G., Aiello, L. C. and Wood, B. A. (2002). Early hominin limb proportions. Journal of Human Evolution, 43, 529–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rightmire, G. P. (1993). Variation among early Homo crania from Olduvai Gorge and the Koobi Fora region. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 90, 1–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rightmire, G. P. (2009). Middle and later Pleistocene hominins in Africa and Southwest Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 16046–16050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rightmire, G. P. and Deacon, H. J. (1991). Comparative studies of Late Pleistocene human remains from Klasies River Mouth, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 20, 131–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, J. T. (1953). Telanthropus and its phylogenetic significance. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 11, 445–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, J. T. (1961). The australopithecines and their bearing on the origin of man and of stone tool-making. South African Journal of Science, 57, 3–13.Google Scholar
Ruff, C. B. (2009). Relative limb strength and locomotion in Homo habilis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 138, 90–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruff, C. B., McHenry, H. M. and Thackeray, J. F. (1999). Cross-sectional morphology of the SK 82 and 97 proximal femora. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 109, 509–521.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Semaw, S. (2000). The world’s oldest stone artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their implications for understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6–1.5 million years ago. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27, 1197–1214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Semaw, S., Renne, P., Harris, J. W. K., Feibel, C. S., Bernor, R. L., Fesseha, N. and Mowbray, K. (1997). 2.5-million-year-old stone tools from Gona, Ethiopia. Nature, 385, 333–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, R. (1954). The Saldanha skull from Hopefield, South Africa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 12, 345–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, R. and Wymar, J. (1982). The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 312pp.Google Scholar
Smith, F. H., Falsetti, A. B. and Donnelly, S. M. (1989). Modern human origins. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 32, 35–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spoor, F., Leakey, M. G., Gathogo, P. N., Brown, F. H., Anton, S. C., McDougall, I., Kiarie, C., Manthi, F. K. and Leakey, L. N. (2007). Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature, 448, 688–691.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spoor, F., Leakey, M. G. and Leakey, L. N. (2010). Hominin diversity in the Middle Pleistocene of eastern Africa: The maxilla of KNM-WT 40000. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 365, 3377–3388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stanley, S. M. (1992). An ecological theory for the origin of Homo. Paleobiology, 18, 237–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stringer, C. (2002). Modern human origins: Progress and prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 357, 563–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, R. L. (1988). Hand of Paranthropus robustus from Member 1. Swartkrans: fossil evidence for tool behaviour. Science, 240, 781–784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Susman, R. L., de Ruiter, D. and Brain, C. K. (2001). Recently identified postcranial remains of Paranthropus and early Homo from Swartkrans Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 41, 607–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, R. L. and Stern, J. T. Jr. (1982). Understanding stone technology and patterns of human evolution between 2.6 – 1.5 million years ago. Functional morphology of Homo habilis. Science, 217, 931–933.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, M. B., Pickering, T. R., Pickering, R., Brain, C. K., Clarke, R. J., Heaton, J. L. and Kuman, K. (2009). Newly discovered fossil- and artifact-bearing deposits, uranium-series ages, and Plio-Pleistocene hominids at Swartkrans Cave, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 57, 688–696.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suwa, G., White, T. D. and Howell, F. C. (1996). Mandibular postcanine dentition from the Shungura formation, Ethiopia: Crown morphology, taxonomic allocations, and Plio-Pleistocene hominid evolution. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 101, 247–282.3.0.CO;2-Z>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thackeray, J. F., de Ruiter, D. J., Berger, L. and van der Merwe, N. (2001). Hominid fossils from Kromdraai: A revised list of specimens discovered since 1938. Annals of the Transvaal Museum, 38, 43–56.Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1971). Human skeletal remains from the Cave of Hearths, Makapansgat, Northern Transvaal. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 34, 335–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tobias, P. V. (1991a). The species Homo habilis: Example of a premature discovery. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 28, 371–380.Google Scholar
Tobias, P. V. (1991b). The Skulls and Endocasts of Homo habilis. Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 4. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 921pp.Google Scholar
Ungar, P. S., Grine, F. E. and Teaford, M. F. (2008). Dental microwear and diet of the Plio-Pleistocene hominin Paranthropus boisei. PLoS One, 3, e2044, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002044.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verna, C., Texier, P.-J., Rigaud, J.-P., Poggenpoel, C. and Parkington, J. (2013). The Middle Stone Age human remains from Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape, South Africa). Journal of Archaeological Science, 40, 3532–3541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villa, P., Soriano, S., Tsanova, T., Degano, I., Higham, T. F. G., d’Errico, F., Backwell, L., Lucejko, J. J., Colombini, M. P. and Beaumont, P. B. (2012). Border Cave and the beginning of the Later Stone Age in South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 109, 13208–13213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Villmoare, B., Kimbel, W. H., Seyoum, C., Campisano, C. J., DiMaggio, E., Rowan, J., Braun, D. R., Arrowsmith, J. R. and Reed, K. E. (2015). Early Homo at 2.8 Ma from Ledi-Geraru, Afar, Ethiopia. Science, 347, 1352–1355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrba, E. S. (1988). Late Pliocene climatic events and hominid evolution. In Evolutionary History of the ‘robust’ Australopithecines, ed. Grine, F. E.. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp. 405–426.Google Scholar
Walker, A., Leakey, R. E., Harris, J. M. and Brown, F. H. (1986). 2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya. Nature, 322, 517–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, T. D., Asfaw, B., DeGusta, D., Gilbert, H., Richards, G. D., Suwa, G. and Howell, F. C. (2003). Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 423, 742–747.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, B. A. (1991). Hominid Cranial Remains, Koobi Fora Research Project. Vol. 4. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 496pp.Google Scholar
Wood, B. A. (1992). Origin and evolution of the genus Homo. Nature, 355, 783–790.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, B. A. (2010). Reconstructing human evolution: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 8902–8909.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, B. A. and Strait, D. (2003). Patterns of resource use in early Homo and Paranthropus. Journal of Human Evolution, 46, 119–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar