Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-10-29T23:43:05.223Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - The Alpine Avifauna of Tropical Mountains

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2023

Dan Chamberlain
Affiliation:
University of Turin
Aleksi Lehikoinen
Affiliation:
Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki
Kathy Martin
Affiliation:
University of British Columbia, Vancouver
Get access

Summary

Tropical mountain regions are characterized by complex and mostly resident avifaunas with many small-range species and a high turnover of species across mountain ranges. On a global scale, tropical mountains show an over-representation of both recently-diverged and ancient species, making them both cradles and museums of biodiversity. Tropical mountains are characterized by slight seasonality, and local habitat gradients can be maintained over a long time. The highest levels of diversification and local endemism are found in the tree-line zone. However, a few avian families also diversified in the alpine zone. Here, many species forage by probing for invertebrates in the ground and in matted vegetation, and many species also exploit carbohydrate foods, including nectar. In an environment with few large insects, co-adapted networks of nectarivorous birds and plants play an important role. There is little published evidence of avian population changes that can be related to recent global warming, as the night-time freezing conditions in open landscapes make it difficult for arboreal vegetation to expand upslope. As glaciers melt, we should expect changes in the rich avifauna of the many periglacial Andean wetlands. Re-visits to well-documented study sites in tropical mountains are now needed to evaluate the amount of change.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aizen, M.A. (2003) Down-facing flowers, hummingbirds and rain. Taxon, 52, 675680.Google Scholar
Alström, P., Jønsson, L.A., Fjeldså, J., et al. (2015) Dramatic niche shifts and morphological change in two insular motacillid birds. Royal Society Open Science, 2, 140364.Google Scholar
Alström, P., Rheindt, F.E., Zhang, B., et al. (2018) Complete species-level phylogeny of the leaf warbler (Aves, Phylloscopidae) radiation. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 126, 141152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Argolfo, J. & Mourguiart, P. (2000) Late Quaternary climate history of the Bolivian Altiplano. Quaternary International, 72, 3751.Google Scholar
Bader, M.Y., van Geloof, J. & Rietkerk, M. (2017) High solar radiation hinders tree regeneration above the alpine treeline in northern Ecuador. Plant Ecology, 191, 3345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, F.K., Burns, K.J., Klicka, J., Lanyon, S.M. & Lovette, I.J. (2015) New insights into New World biogeography: an integrated view from the phylogeny of blackbirds, cardinals, sparrows, tanagers, warblers, and allies. Auk, 132, 333348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barve, S., Dhondt, A.A., Mathur, V.B. & Cheviron, Z.A. (2016) Life-history characteristics influence physiological strategies to cope with hypoxia in Himalayan birds. Proceedings of the Royal Socety Series B, 283, 1843.Google ScholarPubMed
Borregaard, M.K., Graves, G.R. & Rahbek, C. (2020) Dispersion fields reveal the compositional structure of South American vertebrate assemblages. Nature Communications, 11, 491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosson, J.B., Huss, M. & Osipova, E. (2019) Disappearing world heritage glaciers as a keystone of nature conservation in a changing climate. Earth’s Future, 7, 469479.Google Scholar
Boyce, A.J., Freeman, B.G., Mitchell, A.E. & Martin, T.E. (2015) Clutch size declines with elevation in tropical birds. Auk, 132, 424432.Google Scholar
Brown, J.H. (1984) On the relationship between abundance and distribution of species. American Naturalist, 124, 255279.Google Scholar
Bruijnzeel, L.A., Scatena, F.N. & Hamilton, L.S. (2010) Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Byers, A.C. (2000) Contemporary landscape change in the Huascarán National Park and buffer zone, Cordillera Blanca, Peru. Mountain Research and Development, 20, 5263.Google Scholar
Cadena, C.D., Kozak, K.H., Gómez, J.P., et al. (2012) Latitude, elevational climatic zonation and speciation in New World vertebrates. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 279, 194201.Google ScholarPubMed
Cadena, C.K. & Cespedes, L.N. (2020) Origin of elevational replacements in a clade of nearly flightless birds: most diversity in tropical mountains accumulates via secondary contact following allopatric speciation. In Neotropical Speciation. Rull, V. & Carnaval, A.C. (eds.). Berlin: Springer, pp. 635659.Google Scholar
Cai, T., Fjeldså, J., Wu, Y., et al. (2018) What makes the Sino-Himalayan mountains the major diversity hotspots for pheasants? Journal of Biogeography, 45, 640651.Google Scholar
Cai, T., Cibois, A., Alström, P., et al. (2019) Near-complete phylogeny and taxonomic revision of the World’s babblers (Aves: Passeriformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 130, 346356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cai, T., Shao, S., Kennedy, J.D., et al. (2020) The role of evolutionary time, diversification rates and dispersal in determining the global diversity of a large radiation of passerine birds. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 47, 16121625.Google Scholar
Carpenter, F.L. (1976) Ecology and evolution of an Andean hummingbird (Oreotrochilus estella). University of California Publications in Zoology, 196, 174.Google Scholar
Chan, W-P., Chen, I.C., Colwell, R.K., et al. (2016) Seasonal and daily climate variation have opposite effects on species elevational range-size. Science, 351, 14371439.Google Scholar
Cracraft, J. (2013) Avian higher-level relationships and classification: nonpasseriforms. In The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. 4th edition, Vol. 1. Dickinson, E.C. & Remsen, J.V. (eds.). Eastbourne: Aves Press, pp. xxi–xli.Google Scholar
Derryberry, E.P., Claramunt, S., Derryberry, G., et al. (2011) Lineage diversification and morphological evolution in a large-scale continental radiation: the Neotropical ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Aves: Furnariidae). Evolution, 65, 29732986.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorst, J. & Vuilleumier, F. (1986) Convergence in bird communities at high altitudes in the tropics (especially the Andes and Africa) and at temperate latitudes (Tibet). In High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 120149.Google Scholar
Dulle, H.I., Ferger, S.W., Cordeiro, N.J., et al. (2016) Changes in abundances of forest understorey birds on Africa’s highest mountain suggest subtle effects of climate change. Diversity and Distributions, 22, 288299.Google Scholar
Dullinger, G., Gattringer, A., Thuiller, W., et al. (2012) Extinction debt of higher mountain plants under twenty-first-century climate change. Nature Climate Change, 2, 619622.Google Scholar
Elsen, P.R. & Tingley, M.W. (2015) Global mountain topography and the fate of montane species under climate change. Nature Climate Change, 5, 772776.Google Scholar
Favre, A., Päckert, M., Pauls, S.U., et al. (2015) The role of the uplift of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau for the evolution of Tibetan biotas. Biological Reviews, 90, 236253.Google Scholar
Feinsinger, P., Colwell, R.K., Terborgh, J. & Chaplin, S.B. (1979) Elevation and the morphology, flight energetics and foraging ecology of tropical hummingbirds. American Naturalist, 113, 181197.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. (1981) Biological notes on the Giant Coot Fulica gigantea. Ibis, 123, 423437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fjeldså, J. (1985) Origin, evolution and status of the avifauna of Andean wetlands. Ornithological Monographs, 36, 85112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fjeldså, J. (1991) The activity of birds during snowstorms in high-level woodlands in Peru. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Club, 111, 411.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. (2002) Polylepis forests – vestiges of a vanishing ecosystem in the Andes. Ecotropica, 8, 111123.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. (2013) The global diversification of songbirds (Oscines) and the build-up of the Sino-Himalayan diversity hotspot. Chinese Birds, 4, 132143.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. & Bowie, R.C.K. (2008) New perspectives on Africa’s ancient forest avifauna. African Journal of Ecology, 46, 235247.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. & Irestedt, M. (2009) Diversification of the South American avifauna: patterns and implications for conservation in the Andes. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 96, 398409.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J. & Krabbe, N.K. (1990) Birds of the High Andes. Copenhagen: Zoological Museum and Apollo Books.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J., Bowie, R.C.K. & Rahbek, C. (2012) The role of mountain ranges in the diversification of birds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 43, 244265.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J., Ohlson, J.I., Batalha-Filho, H., Ericson, P.G.P. & Irestedt, M. (2018) Rapid expansion and diversification into new niche space by fluvicoline flycatchers. Journal of Avian Biology, 49, e01661.Google Scholar
Fjeldså, J., Christidis, L. & Ericson, P.G.P. (2020) The Largest Avian Radiation. The Evolution of Perching Birds, or the Order Passeriformes. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.Google Scholar
Flantua, S.G.A., O’Dea, A, Onstein, R., Giraldo, C. & Hooghiemstra, H. (2019) The flickering connectivity system of the north Andean páramos. Journal of Biogeography, 46, 18081825.Google Scholar
Forero-Medina, G., Terborgh, J., Socolar, S.J. & Pimm, S.L. (2011) Elevational ranges of birds on a tropical montane gradient lag behind warming temperatures. PLoS ONE, 6, e28535.Google Scholar
Foster, P. (2001) The potential negative impacts of global climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Earth-Science Reviews, 55, 73106.Google Scholar
Freeman, B.G. (2017) Little evidence for Bergmann’s rule body size clines in passerine birds along tropical elevational gradients. Journal of Biogeography, 44, 502510.Google Scholar
Freeman, B.G., Scholer, M.N., Ruiz-Gutierrez, V. & Fitzpatrick, J.W. (2018) Climate change causes upslope shifts and mountaintop extirpations in a tropical bird community. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 11982–11987.Google Scholar
García-Moreno, J., Arctander, P. & Fjeldså, J. (1999) A case of rapid diversification in the Neotropics: phylogenetic relationships among Cranioleuca spinetails (Aves: Furnariidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 12, 273281.Google Scholar
Garzione, C.N., Hoke, G.D., Libarkin, J.C., et al. (2008) Rise of the Andes. Science, 320, 13041307.Google Scholar
Ghalambor, C.K., Huey, R.B., Martin, P.H., Tewksbury, I.J. & Wang, G. (2006) Are mountain passes higher in the tropics? Janzen’s hypothesis revisited. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 46, 517.Google Scholar
Graves, G.R. (1988) Linearity of geographic range and its possible effect on the population structure of Andean birds. Auk, 105, 4752.Google Scholar
Hansen, P.C.S., Wright, H.E. & Bradbury, J.P. (1984) Pollen studies in the Junín area, central Peruvian Andes. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 95, 14541465.Google Scholar
Hardy, D.R. & Hardy, C.P. (2008) White-winged Diuca-finch (Diuca speculifera) nesting on Querccaya Ice Cap, Peru. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 120, 613617.Google Scholar
Harsh, M.A. & Bader, M.Y. (2011) Treeline form – a potential key to understanding treeline dynamics. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 20, 582596.Google Scholar
Harris, J.B.C., Dwi Putra, D., Gregory, S.D., et al. (2014) Rapid deforestation threatens mid-elevational endemic birds but climate change is most important at higher elevations. Diversity and Distributions, 20, 773785.Google Scholar
Harvey, M.G., Bravo, G.A., Claramunt, S., et al. (2020) The evolution of a tropical biodiversity hotspot. Science, 370, 13431348.Google Scholar
Hau, M., Rickleffs, R.E., Wikelski, M., Lee, K.A. & Brown, J.D. (2010) Corticosterone, testosterone and life history strategies of birds. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 277, 32033212.Google Scholar
Hedberg, O. (1964) Features of Afroalpina Plant Ecology. Uppsala: Arnquist & Wikson.Google Scholar
Hedberg, O. (1986) Origins of the Afroalpine flora. In High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 443468.Google Scholar
Herzog, S.K., Soria, A.R. & Matthysen, E. (2003) Seasonal variation in avian community composition in a high-Andean Polylepis (Rosaceae) forest fragment. Wilson Bulletin, 115, 438447.Google Scholar
Hoch, G. & Körner, C. (2005) Growth, demography and carbon relations of Polylepis trees at the World’s highest treeline. Functional Ecology, 19, 7451.Google Scholar
Hoorn, C., Perrico, A. & Antonelli, A. (2018) Mountains, Climate, and Biodiversity. Oxford: Wiley & Sons Ltd.Google Scholar
Hughes, C. & Eastwood, R. (2006) Island radiation on a continental scale: exceptional rates of plant diversification after uplift of the Andes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, 10334–10339.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hurlbert, S.H., Loayza, W. & Moreno, T. (1996) Fish-flamingo-plankton interactions in the Peruvian Andes. Limnology and Oceanography, 31, 457463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huss, M., Bookhagen, B., Huggel, C., et al. (2017) Toward mountains without permanent snow and ice. Earth’s Future, 5, 418435.Google Scholar
Igea, J. & Tanentzap, A.J. (2021) Global topographic uplift has elevated speciation in mammals and birds over the last 300 million years. Nature Ecology and Evolution, 5, 15301535.Google Scholar
Janzen, D.H. (1967) Why mountain passes are higher in the tropics. American Naturalist, 101, 233249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarzyna, M.A., Qintero, L. & Jetz, W. (2021) Global functional and phylogenetic structure of avian assemblages across elevation and latitude. Ecology Letters, 24, 196207.Google Scholar
Karger, D.N., Kessler, M., Conrad, O., et al. (2019) Why tree lines are lower on islands – Climate and biogeographic effects hold the answer. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 28, 839850.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, M. & Herzog, S.K. (1998) Conservation status in Bolivia of timberline habitats, elfin forest and their birds. Cotinga, 10, 5054.Google Scholar
Körner, C. (2003) Alpine Plant Life. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: Springer.Google Scholar
Körner, C. & Paulsen, J. (2004) A world-wide study of high altitude treeline temperatures. Journal of Biogeography, 31, 713732.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lægaard, S. (1992) Influence of fire in the grass páramo vegetation of Ecuador. In Páramo. An Andean Ecosystem under Human Influence. Balslev, H. & Luteyn, J. (eds.). Århus: Academic Press, pp. 151170.Google Scholar
La Sorte, F.A. & Jetz, W. (2010) Projected range contractions of montane biodiversity under global warming. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 277, 34013410.Google Scholar
Landis, M.J.J. & Schreiber, J.G. (2017) Pulsed evolution shaped modern vertebrate body sizes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114, 13224–13229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lei, F., Qu, Y., Song, G., Alström, P. & Fjeldså, J. (2015) The potential drivers in forming avian biodiversity hotspots in the East Himalaya Mountains of Southwest China. Integrative Zoology, 10, 171181.Google Scholar
Lifjeld, J.T., Gohli, J., Albrecht, T., et al. (2019) Evolution of female promiscuity in Passerides songbirds. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 19, 169.Google Scholar
Linck, E.B., Freeman, B.G., Cadena, C.D & Ghalambor, C.K. (2021) Evolutionary conservatism will limit responses to climate change in the tropics. Biology Letters, 17, 20210363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lomolino, M. (2001) Elevation gradients of species diversity: historical and prospective views. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 10, 313.Google Scholar
Lovett, J.C. (1993) Eastern Arc moist forest flora. In Biogeography & Ecology of the Rain Forests of Eastern Africa. Lovett, J.C. & Wasser, S.K. (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 3355.Google Scholar
Lutz, D.A. (2013) Four decades of Andean timberline migration and implications for biodiversity loss with climate change. PLoS ONE, 8, e74496.Google Scholar
Madriñán, S., Cortés, A.J. & Richardson, J.E. (2013) Paramó is the world’s fastest evolving and coolest biodiversity hotspot. Frontiers in Genetics, 4, 192.Google Scholar
Mayr, G. (2019) A previously unnoticed vascular trait of the middle ear suggests that a cranial heat-exchange structure contributed to the radiation of cold-adapted songbirds. Journal of Ornithology, 160, 173184.Google Scholar
McGuire, J.A., Witt, C.C., RemsenJr, J.V., et al. (2014) Molecular phylogenetics and the diversification of hummingbirds. Current Biology, 24, 910916.Google Scholar
Neate-Clegg, M.H.C., Jones, S.E.I., Tobias, J.A., Newmark, W.D. & Şekercioğlu, Ç.H. (2021) Ecological correlates of elevational range shifts in tropical birds. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 621749.Google Scholar
Oliveros, C.H., Field, D.J., Ksepka, D.T., et al. (2019) Earth history and the passerine superradiation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 79167925.Google Scholar
Orme, C.D.L., Davies, R.G., Burgess, M., et al. (2005) Global hotspots of species richness are not congruent with endemism or threat. Nature, 436, 10161020.Google Scholar
Päckert, M., Martens, J., Sun, Y.-H. & Tietze, D.T. (2015) Evolutionary history of passerine birds (Aves: Passeriformes) from the Qhinghai-Tibetan plateau: from a pre-Quaternary perspective to an integrative biodiversity assessment. Journal of Ornithology, 156 S1, 355365.Google Scholar
Päckert, M., Favre, A., Schnitzler, J., et al. (2020) “Into and out of” the Quinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Himalayas: centers of origin and diversification across five clades of Eurasian montane and alpine passerine birds. Ecology and Evolution, 10, 92839300.Google Scholar
Pérez-Escobar, O.A., Zizka, A., Bermúdez, M.A., et al. (2022) The Andes through time: evolution and distribution of Andean floras. Trends in Plant Science, 27, 364378.Google Scholar
Poulsen, B.O. (1996) Relationships between frequency of mixed-species flocks, weather and insect activity in a montane cloud forest in Ecuador. Ibis, 138, 466470.Google Scholar
Price, T.D., Hooper, D.M., Buchanan, C.D., et al. (2014) Niche filling slows the diversification of Himalayan songbirds. Nature, 509, 222225.Google Scholar
Pulido-Santacruz, P. & Weir, J.T. (2016) Extinction as a driver of avian latitudinal diversity gradients. Evolution, 70, 860872.Google Scholar
Quintero, J. & Jetz, W. (2018) Global elevational diversity and diversification of birds. Nature, 553, 246250.Google Scholar
Rabatel, A., Francou, B., Soruco, A., et al. (2013) Current state of glaciers in the tropical Andes: a multi-century perspective on glacier evolution and climate change. Cryosphere, 7, 81102.Google Scholar
Rahbek, C. (1995) The elevational gradient of species richness: a uniform pattern? Ecography, 18, 200205.Google Scholar
Rahbek, C. & Graves, G.R. (2001) Multiscale assessment of patterns of avian species richness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98, 45344539.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahbek, C., Borregaard, M.K., Colwell, R.K., et al. (2019a) Humboldt’s enigma: what causes global patterns of mountain biodiversity? Science, 365, 11081113.Google Scholar
Rahbek, C., Borregaard, M.K., Antonelli, A., et al. (2019b) Building mountain biodiversity: geological and evolutionary processes. Science, 365, 11141119.Google Scholar
Rangel, R.F., Edwards, N.R., Holden, P.B., et al. (2018) Modelling the ecology and evolution of biodiversity: biogeographic cradles, museums and graves. Science, 361, eaar5462.Google Scholar
Rehm, E.M. & Feeley, K.J. (2015a) The inability of tropical cloud forest species to invade grassland above treeline during climate change: potential explanations and consequences. Ecography, 38, 11671175.Google Scholar
Rehm, E.M. & Feeley, K.J. (2015b) Freezing temperatures as a limit to forest recruitment above tropical Andean treelines. Ecology, 96, 18561865.Google Scholar
Rolland, J, Jiguet, F., Jønsson, K.A., Condamine, F.L. & Morlon, H. (2015) Settling down of seasonal migrants promotes bird diversification. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 281, 20140473.Google Scholar
Sánchez-González, L.A., García-Moreno, J., Navarro-Sigüenza, A.G., Krabbe, N.K. & Fjeldså, J. (2014) Diversification in a Neotropical montane bird: the Atlapetes brush-finches. Zoologica Scripta, 44, 135152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sarmiento, G. (1986) Ecological features of climate in high tropical mountains. In High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 1145.Google Scholar
Sayre, R., Karagulle, D., Frye, C., et al. (2020) An assessment of the representation of ecosystems in global protected areas using new maps and World Climate Regions and World Ecosystems. Global Ecology and Conservation, 21, e00860.Google Scholar
Schawe, M., Gerold, G., Bach, K. & Gradstein, S.R. (2010) Hydrometeorological patterns in relation to montane forest types along an elevational gradient in the Yungas of Bolivia. In Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Bruijnzeel, L.A., Scatena, F.N. & Hamilton, L.S. (eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 199216.Google Scholar
Sonne, J., Zanata, T.B., Martín González, A.M., et al. (2019) The distributions of morphologically specialized hummingbirds coincide with floral trait matching across an Andean elevational gradient. Biotropica, 51, 205218.Google Scholar
Sonne, J., Dalsgaard, B., Borregaard, M.K., et al. (2022) Biodiversity cradles and museums segregating within hotspots of endemism. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 289, 20221102.Google ScholarPubMed
Stager, M., Pollock, H.S., Benham, P.M., et al. (2015) Disentangling environmental drivers of metabolic flexibility in birds: the importance of temperature extremes versus temperature variability. Ecography, 39, 787795.Google Scholar
Stevens, G.C. (1989) The latitudinal gradient in geographical range: how so many species coexist in the tropics. American Naturalist, 133, 240256.Google Scholar
Tinoco, B.A., Graham, C.H., Aguilar, J.M. & Schleuning, M. (2017) Effects of hummingbird morphology on specialization in pollination networks vary with resource availability. Oikos, 126, 5260.Google Scholar
Troll, C. (1959) Die Tropischen Gebirge, ihre dreidimensionale klimatische und pflanzengeographische Zonierung. Bonner geographische Abhandlungen, 25, 193.Google Scholar
van Breugel, P., Friis, I., Demissew, S., Lillesø, J.-P. & Kindt, R. (2015) Current and future fire regimes and their influence on natural vegetation in Ethiopia. Ecosystems, 19, 369386.Google Scholar
van Els, P., Herrera-Alsine, L., Pigot, A.L. & Etienne, R. (2021) Dynamical analysis of the global diversity gradient in passerine birds reveals a prominent role for highlands as species pumps. Nature Ecology and Evolution, 5, 12591265.Google Scholar
von Humboldt, A. & Bonpland, J.R. (1807) Ideen zu einer Geographie der Pflanzen nebst einem Naturgemälde der Tropenländer. Tübigen: F.G. Costa/F. Schoell.Google Scholar
Vuille, M. (2013) Climate change and water resources in the tropical Andes. Inter-American Development Bank Environmental Safeguards Unit Technical Note No. IDB-TN-515. Inter-American Development Bank.Google Scholar
Vuilleumier, F. (1969) Pleistocene speciation in birds living in the High Andes. Nature, 223, 11791180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vuilleumier, F. & Simberloff, D. (1980) Ecology vs. history as determinants of patchy and insular distribution in high Andean birds. Evolutionary Biology, 12, 235379.Google Scholar
Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (1986) High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wakeling, J.L., Cramer, M.D. & Bond, W.J. (2012) The savanna-grassland ‘treeline’: why don’t savanna trees occur in upland grasslands? Journal of Ecology, 100, 381391.Google Scholar
Weigold, H. (1949) Tibet einst en Entwicklungszentrum. In Ornithologie als Biologische Wissenschaft. Mayr, E. & Schüz, E. (eds.). Heidelberg: Stresemann-Festschrift, pp. 92107.Google Scholar
Weir, J.T., Bermingham, B. & Schluter, D. (2009) The Great American Biotic Interchange in birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 21737–21742.Google Scholar
Wesche, K., Miehe, G. & Kaeppell, M. (2000) The significance of fire for Afroalpine ericaceous vegetation. Mountain Research and Development, 20, 340347.Google Scholar
White, F. (1978) The Vegetation of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.Google Scholar
White, A.E., Dey, K.K., Mohan, D., Stephens, M. & Price, T.D. (2019) Regional influences on community structure across the tropical-temperate divide. Nature Communications, 10, 2646.Google Scholar
Winger, B.M., Barker, F.K. & Ree, R.H. (2014) Temperate origins of long-distance seasonal migration in New World songbirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 12115–12120.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winger, B.M., Auteri, G.G., Pegan, T.M. & Weeks, B.C. (2018) A long winter for the Red Queen: rethinking the evolution of seasonal migration. Biological Reviews, 94, 737753.Google Scholar
Wolf, L.L & Gill, F.B. (1986) Physiological and ecological adaptations in high montane sunbirds and hummingbirds. In High Altitude Tropical Biogeography. Vuilleumier, F. & Monasterio, M. (eds.). New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 103119.Google Scholar
Zimmer, A., Meneses, R.I., Rabatel, A., et al. (2018) Time lag between glacial retreat and upward migration alters tropical alpine communities. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 30, 89102.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×