Field studies were conducted to determine watermelon tolerance and yield response when treated with bicyclopyrone preplant (PREPLANT), POST, and POST-directed (POST-DIR). Treatments consisted of two rates of bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ai ha–1), fomesafen (175 g ai ha–1), S-metolachlor (802 g ai ha–1), and a nontreated check. Preplant treatments were applied to formed beds 1 d prior to transplanting and included bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ha–1) and fomesafen (175 g ha–1), and new polyethylene mulch was subsequently laid above treated beds. POST and POST-DIR treatments were applied 14 ± 1 d after watermelon transplanting and included bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ha–1) POST and POST-DIR, and S-metolachlor (802 g ai ha–1) POST-DIR. POST-DIR treatments were applied to row middles, ensuring that no herbicide contacted watermelon vines or polyethylene mulch. At 2 wk after transplanting (WAT), 15% foliar bleaching was observed in watermelon treated with bicyclopyrone (50 g ha–1) PRE. At 3 WAT, bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ha–1) POST caused 16% and 17% foliar bleaching and 8% and 9% crop stunting, respectively. At 4 WAT, initial injury had subsided and bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ha–1) POST caused 4% and 4% foliar bleaching and 4% and 8% crop stunting, respectively. No symptoms of bleaching or stunting were observed at 6- and 8-WAT ratings. Watermelon total yield, marketable yield, total fruit number, marketable fruit number, and average fruit size were unaffected by herbicide treatments. Therefore, registration of bicyclopyrone (37.5 and 50 g ha–1) PREPLANT, POST, and POST-DIR would offer watermelon producers a safe herbicide option and a novel mode of action for weed management.

Interrow cultivation is a selective, in-crop mechanical weed control tool that has the potential to control weeds later in the growing season with less crop damage compared with other in-crop mechanical weed control tools. To our knowledge, no previous research has been conducted on the tolerance of narrow-row crops to interrow cultivation. The objective of this experiment was to determine the tolerance of field pea and lentil to interrow cultivation. Replicated field experiments were conducted in Saskatchewan, Canada, in 2014 and 2015. Weekly cultivation treatments began at the 4-node stage of each crop, continuing for 6 wk. Field pea and lentil yield linearly declined with later crop stages of cultivation. Cultivating multiple times throughout the growing season reduced yield by 15% to 30% in both crops. Minimal yield loss occurred when interrow cultivation was conducted once at early growth stages of field pea and lentil; however, yield loss increased with delayed and more frequent cultivation events.

A field study was conducted in 2014 and 2015 in an established 5-yr old commercial blackberry planting to determine the effect of vegetation-free strip width (VFSW) on ‘Navaho’ blackberry vegetative growth, yield and fruit quality parameters, identify the optimum VFSW for blackberry plantings in the southeastern USA, and provide practical groundcover management recommendations that can increase the productivity of blackberry plantings. In Fall 2013, tall fescue was seeded in-row and allowed to establish. In Spring 2014, VFSW treatments (0, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.8 m) were established in a randomized complete block statistical design with four replications. Blackberry growth measurements included primocane and floricane number, cane diam, individual fruit weight and yield. Fruit quality measurements included, soluble solids concentration (SSC), titratable acidity (TA) and pH. Primocane number increased with increasing VFSW in both years. Floricane number increased with increasing VFSW in 2014. Primocane diam decreased with increasing VFSW in 2014 but had a quadratic response in 2015. Berry weight and cumulative yield increased with increasing VFSW in both years. The only berry quality component affected by VFSW was pH, which decreased as VFSW increased. Results indicate that widening the VFSW in blackberry from the current recommendation of 1.2 m to 1.8 m could provide growers a means to increase plant growth, berry weight, and cumulative yield blackberry of a planting.

Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO)–inhibiting herbicides (WSSA Group 14) have been used in agronomic row crops for over 50 yr. Broadleaf weeds, including glyphosate-resistant Palmer amaranth, have been controlled by this herbicide site of action PRE and POST. Recently, Palmer amaranth populations were reported resistant to PPO inhibitors in 2011 in Arkansas, in 2015 in Tennessee, and in 2016 in Illinois. Historically, the mechanism for this resistance involves the deletion of a glycine at position 210 (ΔG210) in a PPO enzyme encoded by the PPX2 gene; however, the ΔG210 deletion did not explain all PPO inhibitor–resistant Palmer amaranth in Tennessee populations. Recently, two new mutations within PPX2 (R128G, R128M) that confer resistance to PPO inhibitors were identified in Palmer amaranth. Therefore, research is needed to document the presence and distribution of the three known mutations that confer PPO inhibitor resistance in Tennessee. In 2017, a survey was conducted in 18 fields with Palmer amaranth to determine whether resistance existed and the prevalence of each known mutation in each field. Fomesafen was applied at 265 g ai ha–1 to Palmer amaranth infestations within each field to select for resistant weeds for later analysis. Where resistance was described (70% of surviving plants), the ΔG210 mutation was detected in 47% of resistant plants. The R128G mutation accounted for 42% of resistance, similar to the frequency of the ΔG210 mutation. The R128M mutation was less frequent than the other two mutations, accounting for only 10% of the resistance. All mutations detected in this study were heterozygous. Additionally, no more than one of the three PPX2 mutations were detected in an individual surviving plant. Similar to previous research, about 70% of PPO resistance was accounted for by these three known mutations, leaving about 30% of resistance not characterized in Tennessee populations. Survivors not showing the three known PPO mutations suggest that other resistance mechanisms are present.

Synthetic auxin herbicides such as 2,4-D and dicamba are often utilized to control broadleaf weeds in preplant burndown applications to soybean. Halauxifen-methyl is a new synthetic auxin herbicide for broadleaf weed control in preplant burndown applications to corn, cotton, and soybean at low use rates (5 g ae ha–1). Field experiments were conducted to evaluate efficacy and weed control spectrum of halauxifen-methyl applied alone and in mixtures with 2,4-D (560 g ae ha–1), dicamba (280 g ae ha–1), and glyphosate (560 g ae ha–1). Glyphosate-resistant (GR) horseweed was controlled with halauxifen-methyl applied alone (90% control) and in mixtures (87% to 97% control) 35 d after treatment (DAT). Common ragweed was controlled 93% with halauxifen-methyl applied alone and 91% to 97% in mixtures 35 DAT. Halauxifen-methyl applied alone resulted in poor giant ragweed control 21 DAT (73% control); however, mixtures of halauxifen-methyl with 2,4-D, dicamba, or glyphosate controlled giant ragweed (86% to 98% control). Halauxifen-methyl alone resulted in poor redroot pigweed control (62% control) 21 DAT; however, mixtures of halauxifen-methyl with dicamba, 2,4-D, or glyphosate controlled redroot pigweed (89% to 98% control). Halauxifen-methyl controls GR horseweed and common ragweed applied alone and in mixtures with other synthetic auxin herbicides and glyphosate. Furthermore, mixing 2,4-D or dicamba with halauxifen-methyl can increase the weed control spectrum in preplant burndown applications.

Little information is published related to seed germination and seedling emergence of Japanese foxtail, a troublesome annual grass weed widely distributed in winter wheat fields in China. Three Japanese foxtail populations were studied under laboratory and greenhouse conditions, to determine the effects of different environmental factors on seed germination or seedling emergence. Chemical control is absolutely necessary in integrated management, and efficacy of POST herbicides against different growth stages of Japanese foxtail was evaluated. Germination rate was 90% or more when temperature ranged from 5 to 25 C, with germination onset shortened as temperature increased. Light was not required for germination to occur. For pH values ranging from 5 to10 there was no effect on seed germination. Japanese foxtail seed germination was sensitive to osmotic stress and completely inhibited at an osmotic potential of -1.1 MPa. The ‘1513’ population of Japanese foxtail demonstrated tolerance to soil salinity, with 98% germination at 80 mM NaCl compared with 25 and 40% germination for populations ‘1532’ and ‘1544’, respectively. High amounts of crop residue (10 t ha−1) suppressed Japanese foxtail emergence 38 to 55%. Germination of seeds placed at 160 C for 5 min was completely inhibited for dry seeds, with a similar effect at 130 C for pre-soaked seeds. Seed burial in the soil from 0 to 4 cm had no effect on seedling emergence, but burial at 7 cm completely inhibited seedling emergence. POST herbicides mesosulfuron-methyl (13.5 g ai ha−1), clodinafop-propargyl (67.5 g ai ha−1), pyroxsulam (13.5 g ai ha−1), pinoxaden (67.5 g ai ha−1) and isoproturon (1125 g ai ha−1) reduced plant dry weight 80% or more when applied at three- to seven-leaf stage, but control declined with application at later growth stages. The information from this study helps to develop an integrated approach to Japanese foxtail management.

Palmer amaranth, a dioecious summer annual weed species, is the most troublesome weed in agronomic crop production systems in the United States. Palmer amaranth resistant to photosystem (PS) II- and 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) inhibitors is of particular concern in south central Nebraska. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of PRE followed by POST herbicide programs on PS II- and HPPD-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth control, crop yield, and net economic return in conventional corn. A field study was conducted in 2014, 2015, and 2016 in a grower’s field infested with PS II- and HPPD-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth near Shickley in Fillmore County, Nebraska. A contrast analysis suggested that mesotrione+S-metolachlor+atrazine applied PRE provided 83% Palmer amaranth control at 21 d after application compared to 78 and 72% control with pyroxasulfone+fluthiacet-ethyl+atrazine and saflufenacil+dimethenamid-P, respectively. Most of the PRE followed by POST herbicide programs provided ≥85% Palmer amaranth control. Based on contrast analysis, POST application of dicamba+diflufenzopyr provided 93% Palmer amaranth control compared to 87, 79, and 42% control with dicamba, dicamba+halosulfuron, and acetochlor, respectively, at 28 d after POST. All PRE followed by POST herbicide programs, aside from mesotrione+S-metolachlor+atrazine followed by acetochlor (2,530 to 7,809 kg ha−1), provided 9,550 to 10,500 kg ha−1 corn yield compared with 2,713 to 6,110 kg ha−1 from nontreated control. Similarly, PRE followed by POST herbicide programs, except for mesotrione+S-metolachlor+atrazine followed by acetochlor ($191 and $897 ha−1), provided similar net return of $427 to $707 ha−1 and $1,127 to $1,727 ha−1 in 2014 and 2015-16, respectively. It is concluded that herbicide programs based on multiple sites of action are available for control of PS II- and HPPD-inhibitor-resistant Palmer amaranth in conventional corn.

Ammonium nonanoate is registered for weed control in certified organic cropping systems and may be useful to control cool-season weeds in organic Vidalia® sweet onion production. Ammonium nonanoate combined with tine-weeder cultivation was evaluated for weed control in organic onion in Georgia. There were no statistical interactions between main effects of herbicides and cultivation with a tine weeder for cool-season weed control and onion yield, indicating that ammonium nonanoate does not improve weed control compared with cultivation. Ammonium nonanoate at 4% and 6% did not adequately control weeds and onion yields were reduced. Ammonium nonanoate at 8% and 10% controlled cutleaf evening-primrose and lesser swinecress equal to the standard of d-limonene (14%), but the degree of control did not consistently protect onion yields from losses due to weeds. These results are in agreement with previous studies using clove oil and pelargonic acid. There is no advantage to using ammonium nonanoate for cool-season weed control in organic Vidalia® sweet onion production.

Diphenyl ether herbicides are commonly applied POST in soybean to control weeds late in the growing season that have not been controlled by other previous weed management tactics. These “rescue” applications can occur during reproductive soybean growth. The effect of these herbicides on the developing flowers and pods is not known. Field research studies were conducted over 3 yr to determine how soybean flowers and developing pods respond to fomesafen, acifluorfen, and lactofen when applied at R1, R3, and R5 growth stages. Flower and pod counts in the nontreated check showed an increase (17.1, 5.8, and 2.21 at R1, R3, and R5 stage, respectively) and were statistically the same as the herbicide treatments 1 wk after treatment. Fomesafen, acifluorfen, and lactofen applied at 395, 420, and 219 g ai ha–1 at R1, R3, and R5 stage had no negative impact on soybean flowers and developing pods when compared to the nontreated check. No significant differences were observed in soybean yield between any treatments in all site-years of the study.

In 2017, dicamba-resistant (DR) soybean was commercially available to farmers in the United States. In August and September of 2017, a survey of 312 farmers from 60 Nebraska soybean-producing counties was conducted during extension field days or online. The objective of this survey was to understand farmers’ adoption and perceptions regarding DR soybean technology in Nebraska. The survey contained 16 questions and was divided in three parts: (1) demographics, (2) dicamba application in DR soybean, and (3) dicamba off-target injury to sensitive soybean cultivars. According to the results, 20% of soybean hectares represented by the survey were planted to DR soybean in 2017, and this number would probably double in 2018. Sixty-five percent of survey respondents own a sprayer and apply their own herbicide programs. More than 90% of respondents who adopted DR soybean technology reported significant improvement in weed control. Nearly 60% of respondents used dicamba alone or glyphosate plus dicamba for POST weed control in DR soybean; the remaining 40% added an additional herbicide with an alternative site of action (SOA) to the POST application. All survey respondents used one of the approved dicamba formulations for application in DR soybean. Survey results indicated that late POST dicamba applications (after late June) were more likely to result in injury to non-DR soybean compared to early POST applications (e.g., May and early June) in 2017. According to respondents, off-target dicamba movement resulted both from applications in DR soybean and dicamba-based herbicides applied in corn. Although 51% of respondents noted dicamba injury on non-DR soybean, 7% of those who noted injury filed an official complaint with the Nebraska Department of Agriculture. Although DR soybean technology allowed farmers to achieve better weed control during 2017 than previous growing seasons, it is apparent that off-target movement and resistance management must be addressed to maintain the viability and effectiveness of the technology in the future.

A glasshouse study was established at Louisiana State University campus in Baton Rouge, LA, to evaluate the control of fall panicum and Nealley’s sprangletop treated with florpyrauxifen-benzyl. Florpyrauxifen was applied at 30 g ai ha–1 to each grass species at the three- to four-leaf and one- to two-tiller stages of growth. At 21 d after treatment (DAT), fall panicum control was 91% when treated with florpyrauxifen at the three- to four-leaf stage, and Nealley’s sprangletop control was 78% to 82%, regardless of application timing 21 DAT. Leaf number, tiller number, plant height, and plant fresh weight were reduced when fall panicum and Nealley’s sprangletop were treated with florpyrauxifen. This information can be useful for developing weed management strategies with this herbicide for rice production, and it provides an additional mode of action to help manage and/or delay the development of herbicide-resistant weeds.

The distinction between count nouns and mass nouns affects thinking and writing about various types of crops and produce. Count nouns are words that indicate discrete, countable objects (e.g., forks, viewpoints), whereas mass nouns are words that indicate some relatively undifferentiated substance (e.g., water, energy). We explain the grammar of these two forms and point out some writing pitfalls to avoid. The word seed is one of the few English nouns that is both a count noun and a mass noun. An argument is presented for using seeds as the plural when several individuals are counted and for using seed as the singular when referring to seeds in the aggregate.

Plant growth stage and temperature influence the activity of glyphosate on common lambsquarters. A biotype of common lambsquarters in Dickinson County, KS (DK) was not controlled upon treatment with glyphosate in the field. In a greenhouse dose–response study, the DK biotype expressed 1.5-fold less sensitivity to glyphosate compared to a known susceptible biotype from Riley County, KS (RL). Common lambsquarters plants were treated at different growth stages (5 to 7, 10 to 12, 15 to 17, or 19 to 21 cm tall) with glyphosate at a field rate (840 g ae ha–1), and, regardless of the biotype, plants were more susceptible to glyphosate when they were 5 to 7 cm tall. Common lambsquarters plants were treated with glyphosate (840 g ae ha–1) after growing at different temperatures (25/15, 32.5/22.5, or 40/30 C day/night), and regardless of the biotype, plants were more susceptible to glyphosate when grown at 25/15 C. The results suggest that the DK biotype exhibits reduced sensitivity to glyphosate compared to the RL biotype, and glyphosate applied at field rate would be more effective on smaller common lambsquarters plants and at cooler temperatures. Common lambsquarters seedlings tend to emerge when temperatures are cooler, early in the spring relative to other summer annual weeds. Therefore, plants should be identified and treated earlier in the growing season for best efficacy with glyphosate.

Sugarcane growers in Florida have been reporting reduced control of fall panicum with asulam, the main herbicide used for POST grass control. Therefore, outside container experiments were conducted to determine the response of four fall panicum populations from Florida to asulam applied alone and to evaluate whether tank-mix combination with trifloxysulfuron enhances control. Asulam was applied at 230 to 7,400 g ai ha−1, corresponding to 1/16 to 2X the maximum labeled rate for a single application in sugarcane, with or without combination with trifloxysulfuron at 16 g ai ha−1. Three fall panicum populations were collected from fields in which reduced control had been reported, while one population was from a field not used for sugarcane production but adjacent to a sugarcane field. The potency of asulam based on ED50 values (the rate required to cause 50% dry weight reduction at 28 d after treatment) ranged from 2,249 to 5,412 g ha−1 for tolerant populations with reported reduced fall panicum control compared with 1,808 g ha−1 for the susceptible population from the field not used for sugarcane production, showing that the latter was most sensitive to asulam. Addition of trifloxysulfuron to asulam increased potency on fall panicum by 5- to 15-fold, indicating that the tank mix enhanced dry weight reduction for all populations. The probability of fall panicum survival (regrowth after aboveground biomass harvesting) at the labeled rate of asulam ranged from 2% to 47% compared with 0% to 6% when trifloxysulfuron was added to the tank mix. Our results show differential response of fall panicum populations in Florida to asulam, which can be overcome by tank mixing with trifloxysulfuron even for populations that are difficult to control in sugarcane, but no evolution of resistance to asulam.

Cogongrass is commonly found in disturbed areas in Florida, where it is increasingly becoming a problem in bahiagrass pastures. Soil pH has been suggested as a possible mechanism for this invasion; to evaluate this, replacement series competition studies were conducted under greenhouse conditions at two soil pH levels: pH 4.5, or pH 6.8. Cogongrass ramets and bahiagrass seedlings were planted at proportions of 0:40, 1:20, 2:10, 4:1, and 8:0, respectively. Aboveground biomass was measured after 8 weeks and used to calculate relative yield, relative crowding coefficients, and aggressivity values. At soil pH 4.5, the relative competitiveness of cogongrass and bahiagrass was similar, with both species contributing equally to relative yield. At soil pH 6.8, bahiagrass seedlings showed greater competitive ability than cogongrass ramets. Relative crowding coefficient and aggressivity values supported this, with bahiagrass showing increased competitiveness under higher soil pH. This indicates that decreases in soil pH, often associated with poor soil fertility, is likely a contributing factor for cogongrass invasion into bahiagrass pastures. Soil amendments to raise pH may provide a cultural management tool for cogongrass infestations in pastures.

Palmer amaranth resistance to protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO)-inhibiting herbicides has become an increasing problem to producers throughout the southeast region of the United States. Traditionally, these herbicides can be used as foliar-applied and soil-applied in glyphosate resistant (GR) cropping systems to control GR Palmer amaranth. Heavy reliance on PPO herbicides has contributed to the increased selection for PPO inhibitor-resistant (PPO-R) Palmer amaranth biotypes. Dose response greenhouse research was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of soil-applied flumioxazin, fomesafen, saflufenacil and sulfentrazone on a known susceptible (S) and resistant (R) Palmer amaranth biotype. Both R and S populations reached maximum germination at 14 d after treatment (DAT). The data from this study suggests complete control (100%) was achieved for the S biotype at 35 d after treatment (DAT) with all herbicides. The R biotype showed difference among herbicide treatments with flumioxazin and saflufenacil having similar responses in control and fomesafen and sulfentrazone resulting in less control of the R Palmer amaranth biotypes. The calculated relative resistance factor ranged from 3.5 to 6.0, and averaged 5X for the four herbicides. This research indicated that the PPO-R population was still responsive to all tested herbicides, but a low level of resistance was present.

Earlier reports have summarized crop yield losses throughout various North American regions if weeds were left uncontrolled. Offered here is a report from the current WSSA Weed Loss Committee on potential yield losses due to weeds based on data collected from various regions of the United States and Canada. Dry bean yield loss estimates were made by comparing dry bean yield in the weedy control with plots that had >95% weed control from research studies conducted in dry bean growing regions of the United States and Canada over a 10-year period (2007 to 2016). Results from these field studies showed that dry bean growers in Idaho, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, Ontario, and Manitoba would potentially lose an average of 50%, 31%, 36%, 59%, 94%, 31%, 71%, 56%, and 71% of their dry bean yield, respectively. This equates to a monetary loss of US $36, 40, 6, 56, 421, 2, 18, 44, and 44 million, respectively, if the best agronomic practices are used without any weed management tactics. Based on 2016 census data, at an average yield loss of 71.4% for North America due to uncontrolled weeds, dry bean production in the United States and Canada would be reduced by 941,000,000 and 184,000,000 kg, valued at approximately US $622 and US $100 million, respectively. This study documents the dramatic yield and monetary losses in dry beans due to weed interference and the importance of continued funding for weed management research to minimize dry bean yield losses.