The present study aimed to evaluate the association of 4-year-old children’s dietary patterns with adiposity at 7 years, according to child’s sex, using a conceptual model.

Prospective cohort study. Diet was assessed using an FFQ. Age- and sex-specific BMI standard deviation scores (Z-scores) were defined according to the WHO. Fat mass percentage (FM%), fat mass index (FMI) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) were also considered, converted into Z-scores using sex-specific means and standard deviations of the current sample. Dietary patterns were identified by latent class analysis and their association with adiposity was estimated by linear regression models.

Population-based birth cohort Generation XXI (Porto, Portugal, 2005–2006).

Children (n 3473) evaluated at both 4 and 7 years of age.

Three dietary patterns were identified: high in energy-dense foods (EDF); low in foods typically consumed at main meals and intermediate in snacks (Snacking); and higher in vegetables and fish and lower in EDF (Healthier, reference). The EDF dietary pattern at 4 years of age was positively associated with later BMI only in girls (β=0·075, 95 % CI 0·009, 0·140, P-interaction=0·046). The EDF dietary pattern was also associated with other adiposity indicators only in girls (FMI: β=0·071, 95 % CI 0·000, 0·142; WHtR: β=0·094, 95 % CI 0·023, 0·164). Snacking was not significantly associated with any marker of adiposity in either girls or boys.

Although dietary patterns and adiposity persisted across the two ages in both sexes, EDF at 4 years of age increased adiposity at 7 years of age only in girls.

To examine overall micronutrient intake periconceptionally and throughout pregnancy in a population-based cohort of Australian women.

In a prospective cohort study, micronutrient dosages were extracted from self-reported maternal supplement use, recorded pre-conception, and for each trimester of pregnancy. A food frequency scale (DQESv2) captured usual maternal diet for gestational weeks 14–26. The influence of sociodemographic and lifestyle factors associated with supplement use was examined using logistic regression, and changes in micronutrient intakes prior to and throughout pregnancy were assessed using repeated-measures ANOVA analyses.

Metropolitan hospital sites in Melbourne, Australia.

Women with a viable singleton pregnancy were recruited at less than 19 weeks’ gestation (n 2146).

Compared with non-users, women using supplements during pregnancy were more likely to have planned their pregnancy, be >25 years old, primiparous, Caucasian, non-smokers, have a tertiary education and be consuming a folate-rich diet. Intakes of folate, Fe and Zn were significantly lower in the periconceptional period, compared with other periods (P<0·001). Intakes below Recommended Daily Intake levels were common both periconceptionally and throughout pregnancy, with 19–46 % of women not meeting the Recommended Daily Intake for folate, 68–82 % for Fe and 17–36 % for Zn. Conversely, 15–19 % of women consumed beyond the recommended Upper Limit for folate and 11–24 % for Fe.

The study highlights the need for improved public health education on nutritional needs during pregnancy, especially among women with lower educational achievements and income.

In 2011, Dietitians of Canada added ‘My Goals’ to its website-based nutrition/activity tracking program (eaTracker®, http://www.eaTracker.ca/); this feature allows users to choose ‘ready-made’ or ‘write-your-own’ goals and to self-report progress. The purpose of the present study was to document experiences and perceptions of goal setting and My Goals, and report users’ feedback on what is needed in future website-based goal setting/tracking tools.

One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with (i) My Goals users and (ii) dietitians providing a public information support service, EatRight Ontario (ERO).

My Goals users from Ontario and Alberta, Canada were recruited via an eaTracker website pop-up box; ERO dietitians working in Ontario, Canada were recruited via ERO.

My Goals users (n 23; age 19–70 years; 91 % female; n 5 from Alberta/n 18 from Ontario) and ERO dietitians (n 5).

Dietitians and users felt goal setting for nutrition (and activity) behaviour change was both a beneficial and a challenging process. Dietitians were concerned about users setting poor-quality goals and users felt it was difficult to stick to their goals. Both users and dietitians were enthusiastic about the My Goals concept, but felt the current feature had limitations that affected use. Dietitians and users provided suggestions to improve My Goals (e.g. more prominent presence of My Goals in eaTracker; assistance with goal setting; automated personalized feedback).

Dietitians and users shared similar perspectives on the My Goals feature and both felt goal use was challenging. Several suggestions were provided to enhance My Goals that are relevant to website-based goal setting/tracking tool design in general.

Prospective data on the associations between vitamin D intake and risk of CVD and all-cause mortality are limited and inconclusive. The aim of the present study was to investigate the associations between vitamin D intake and CVD risk and all-cause mortality in the Caerphilly Prospective Cohort Study.

The associations of vitamin D intake with CVD risk markers were examined cross-sectionally at baseline and longitudinally at 5-year, 10-year and >20-year follow-ups. In addition, the predictive value of vitamin D intake for CVD events and all-cause mortality after >20 years of follow-up was examined. Logistic regression and general linear regression were used for data analysis.

Participants in the UK.

Men (n 452) who were free from CVD and type 2 diabetes at recruitment.

Higher vitamin D intake was associated with increased HDL cholesterol (P=0·003) and pulse pressure (P=0·04) and decreased total cholesterol:HDL cholesterol (P=0·008) cross-sectionally at baseline, but the associations were lost during follow-up. Furthermore, higher vitamin D intake was associated with decreased concentration of plasma TAG at baseline (P=0·01) and at the 5-year (P=0·01), but not the 10-year examination. After >20 years of follow-up, vitamin D was not associated with stroke (n 72), myocardial infarctions (n 142), heart failure (n 43) or all-cause mortality (n 281), but was positively associated with increased diastolic blood pressure (P=0·03).

The study supports associations of higher vitamin D intake with lower fasting plasma TAG and higher diastolic blood pressure.

Prematurity, stillbirth and other adverse birth outcomes remain major concerns in resource-limited settings. Poor dietary intake of micronutrients during pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes. We determined the relationships between dietary Fe and Ca intakes during pregnancy and risks of adverse birth outcomes among HIV-negative women.

Women’s diet was assessed through repeated 24 h diet recalls in pregnancy. Mean intakes of total Fe, Fe from animal sources and Ca during pregnancy were examined in relation to adverse birth outcomes and neonatal mortality. Women were prescribed daily Fe supplements as per standard perinatal care.

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

A cohort of 7634 pregnant women.

Median (interquartile range) daily dietary intake of total Fe, animal Fe and Ca was 11·9 (9·3–14·7), 0·5 (0–1·1) and 383·9 (187·4–741·2) mg, respectively. Total Fe intake was significantly associated with reduced risk of stillbirth (trend over quartiles, P=0·010). Animal Fe intake was significantly associated with reduced risk of preterm birth and extreme preterm birth. Animal Fe intake was inversely related to neonatal mortality risk; compared with women in the lowest intake quartile, those in the top quartile were 0·51 times as likely to have neonatal death (95 % CI 0·33, 0·77). Higher Ca intake was associated with reduced risk of preterm birth (relative risk; 95 % CI: 0·76; 0·65, 0·88) and extreme preterm birth (0·63; 0·47, 0·86). Women in the highest Ca intake quartile had reduced risk of neonatal mortality (0·59; 0·37, 0·92).

Daily dietary Fe and Ca intakes among pregnant women are very low. Improvement of women’s diet quality during gestation is likely to improve the risks of adverse birth outcomes.

To examine the interaction between waist circumference (WC) and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) level in their associations with serum lipids.

Cross-sectional study. The associations of serum 25(OH)D with total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), LDL cholesterol (LDL-C), LDL-C:HDL-C and TAG were examined using multiple linear regression. Effect modification by WC was assessed through cross-product interaction terms between 25(OH)D and WC categories (abdominal overweight, 80–<88 cm in females/94–<102 cm in males; abdominal obesity, ≥88 cm in females/≥102 cm in males).

The US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey waves 2001–2006.

Non-pregnant fasting participants (n 4342) aged ≥20 years.

Lower 25(OH)D levels were significantly associated with lower HDL-C levels as well as with higher LDL-C:HDL-C and TAG levels in abdominally obese participants, but not in abdominally overweight or normal-waist participants. In contrast, lower 25(OH)D levels were associated with lower levels of total cholesterol and LDL-C in abdominally overweight and normal-waist participants only, but this association was only partly significant. However, a significant difference in the association between 25(OH)D and the lipids according to WC category was found only for LDL-C:HDL-C (P for interaction=0·02).

Our results from this large, cross-sectional sample suggest that the association between lower 25(OH)D levels and an unfavourable lipid profile is stronger in individuals with abdominal obesity than in those with abdominal overweight or a normal WC.

Food insecurity has been rising across Europe following the Great Recession, but to varying degrees across countries and over time. The reasons for this increase are not well understood, nor are what factors might protect people’s access to food. Here we test the hypothesis that an emerging gap between food prices and wages can explain increases in reported inability to afford protein-rich foods and whether welfare regimes can mitigate its impact.

We collected data in twenty-one countries from 2004 to 2012 using two databases: (i) on food prices and deprivation related to food (denoted by reported inability to afford to eat meat, chicken, fish or a vegetarian equivalent every second day) from EuroStat 2015 edition; and (ii) on wages from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2015 edition.

After adjusting for macroeconomic factors, we found that each 1 % rise in the price of food over and above wages was associated with greater self-reported food deprivation (β=0·060, 95 % CI 0·030, 0·090), particularly among impoverished groups. However, this association also varied across welfare regimes. In Eastern European welfare regimes, a 1 % rise in the price of food over wages was associated with a 0·076 percentage point rise in food deprivation (95 % CI 0·047, 0·105) while in Social Democratic welfare regimes we found no clear association (P=0·864).

Rising prices of food coupled with stagnating wages are a major factor driving food deprivation, especially in deprived groups; however, our evidence indicates that more generous welfare systems can mitigate this impact.

Consumers in the UK responded to the rapid increases in food prices between 2007 and 2009 partly by reducing the amount of food energy bought. Household food and drink waste has also decreased since 2007. The present study explored the combined effects of reductions in food purchases and waste on estimated food energy intakes and dietary energy density.

The amount of food energy purchased per adult equivalent was calculated from Kantar Worldpanel household food and drink purchase data for 2007 and 2012. Food energy intakes were estimated by adjusting purchase data for food and drink waste, using waste factors specific to the two years and scaled for household size.

Scotland.

Households in Scotland (n 2657 in 2007; n 2841 in 2012).

The amount of food energy purchased decreased between 2007 and 2012, from 8·6 to 8·2 MJ/adult equivalent per d (P<0·001). After accounting for the decrease in food waste, estimated food energy intake was not significantly different (7·3 and 7·2 MJ/adult equivalent per d for 2007 and 2012, respectively; P=0·186). Energy density of foods purchased increased slightly from 700 to 706 kJ/100 g (P=0·010).

While consumers in Scotland reduced the amount of food energy that they purchased between 2007 and 2012, this was balanced by reductions in household food and drink waste over the same time, resulting in no significant change in net estimated energy intake of foods brought into the home.

To study the association of meal patterns and timing with central obesity to identify the best dietary strategies to deal with the increasing obesity prevalence.

A cross-sectional study performed on data from a representative sample of the Spanish population. Height and waist circumference were measured using standardized procedures and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) was calculated. The sample was divided into those without central obesity (WHtR<0·5) and those with central obesity (WHtR≥0·5).

ANIBES (‘Anthropometric data, macronutrients and micronutrients intake, practice of physical activity, socioeconomic data and lifestyles in Spain’) Study.

Adults aged 18–64 years (n 1655; 798 men and 857 women).

A higher percentage of people ate more than four meals daily in the group without central obesity and those with central obesity more frequently skipped the mid-afternoon snack than those without. Breakfasts containing >25 % of total energy intake and lunches containing >35 % of total energy intake were associated with increased likelihood of central obesity (OR=1·874, 95 % CI 1·019, 3·448; P<0·05 and OR=1·693, 95 % CI 1·264, 2·268; P<0·001, respectively). On the contrary, mid-morning snacks and mid-afternoon snacks containing >15 % of total energy were associated with decreased likelihood of central obesity (OR=0·477, 95 % CI 0·313, 0·727; P<0·001 and OR=0·650, 95 % CI 0·453, 0·932; P<0·05, respectively). The variety of cereals, wholegrain cereals and dairy was higher in the population without central obesity.

Our results suggest that ‘what and when we eat’ should be considered dietary strategies to reduce central obesity.

To estimate the prevalence of underweight and overweight among Bangladeshi adults and to determine if the double burden of underweight and overweight differs by gender and other socio-economic characteristics of individuals.

We used data from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Multinominal logistic regression was used to examine associations between the different nutritional statuses of individuals and related determinants. Interaction effect was checked between gender and various socio-economic factors.

Nationwide, covering the whole of Bangladesh.

Individuals aged >18 years (women, n 16 052; men, n 5090).

Underweight was observed among 28·3 % of men and 24·4 % of women, whereas overweight was observed among 8·4 % of men and 16·9 % of women. The odds of being overweight were significantly lower among urban men (OR=0·46; 95 % CI 0·37, 0·57) compared with urban women, whereas the odds of being underweight were significantly higher among urban men (OR=1·33; 95 % CI 1·07, 1·64) compared with urban women. The odds of being overweight were lower among higher educated men (OR=0·48; 95 % CI 0·39, 0·58) and men of rich households (OR=0·45; 95 % CI 0·37, 0·54) compared with higher educated women and women of rich households, respectively.

There are important gender differences in the prevalence of underweight and overweight among the adult population in Bangladesh. Women with higher education, in rich and urban households have higher chances of being overweight and lower chances of being underweight compared with their male counterparts.

To (i) identify the major temporal patterns of energy intake among adults; (ii) examine the association between employment status and the patterns; and (iii) examine the association between dietary quality and the patterns.

Secondary analysis based on the cross-sectional population-based nutrition survey in Taiwan, 2005–2008. Based on energy intake levels at six time intervals of a day derived from 24 h recall data, we applied cluster analysis to identify major temporal patterns of energy intake. Self-reported employment status was categorized into six groups: full-time, part-time, no job, student, homemaker and retired. Multinomial logistic regression models were fitted to test the association between temporal patterns of energy intake and employment groups.

Non-institutionalized community dwellers.

Non-pregnant adults (≥19 years old) with total energy intake between 2092 and 20920 kJ/d (500 and 5000 kcal/d; n 4508).

Five major patterns were identified, which can be seen as the traditional meal pattern and its variants. About 20 % of adults had the traditional pattern. The most prevalent pattern was the delayed morning meal pattern (33 %), which had lower Ca and P intakes than the traditional pattern. About 14 % of adults had the delayed lunchtime pattern, which had lower protein, PUFA, fibre, Ca, P, vitamin D and vitamin E intakes than the traditional. Adjusted prevalence of the delayed lunchtime pattern was highest among full-time students (34 %), followed by part-time workers (24 %), and was lower in retired (8 %), homemakers (11 %) and full-time employed adults (12 %).

Adults’ temporal patterns of energy intake, which varied with their employment status, affected their dietary quality.

Results associating dairy and Ca intakes with colorectal cancer (CRC) risk have been mixed. Most previous analyses have suffered from confounding between dairy and Ca intakes. We examined independent associations between these variables, also dairy foods, and CRC incidence in a population with a large range of dairy intakes.

Adventist Health Study-2 is a cohort study where subjects were enrolled 2002–2007. Proportional hazard regression analyses were performed to estimate hazard ratios (HR). Regression calibration was used to correct for dietary measurement error.

The population lived in all states of the USA.

There were 77712 analytic subjects, all of whom were Seventh-day Adventists. Much of their dietary Ca came from non-dairy sources.

During a mean follow-up of 7·8 years, 380 incident colon cancer and 111 incident rectal cancer cases were observed.

Comparing extreme quintiles of intake in measurement error-corrected analyses, dairy intake (HR=0·31; 95 % CI 0·09, 0·88), independent of total Ca, was inversely related with risk of rectal cancer but gave little indication of association with colon cancer. However, total Ca intake (independent of dairy) was associated with risk of colon cancer (HR=0·55; 95 % CI 0·28, 0·98) and there was little indication of association with rectal cancer. Traditional regression analyses and associations with macronutrients from dairy generally supported these results. Milk intake was also negatively associated with CRC (HR=0·63; 95 % CI 0·43, 0·89).

Dairy intake may decrease the risk of rectal cancer, and Ca may reduce risk of colon cancer and CRC.

Poor diet quality contributes to morbidity, including poor brain health outcomes such as cognitive decline and dementia. African Americans and individuals living in poverty may be at greater risk for cognitive decrements from poor diet quality.

Cross-sectional.

Baltimore, MD, USA.

Participants were 2090 African Americans and Whites (57 % female, mean age=47·9 years) who completed two 24 h dietary recalls. We examined cognitive performance and potential interactions of diet quality with race and poverty status using baseline data from the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) scores were calculated and interpreted using federal guidelines. A neurocognitive test battery was administered to evaluate cognitive function over several domains.

Linear regression analyses showed that lower HEI-2010 scores were associated with poorer verbal learning and memory (P<0·05) after adjustment for covariates. Diet quality within the sample was poor. Significant interactions of HEI-2010 and poverty status (all P<0·05) indicated that higher diet quality was associated with higher performance on tests of attention and cognitive flexibility, visuospatial ability and perceptual speed among those below the poverty line. No significant race interactions emerged. Higher diet quality was associated with better performance on two measures of verbal learning and memory, irrespective of race and poverty status.

Findings suggest that diet quality and cognitive function are likely related at the population level. Future research is needed to determine whether the association is clinically significant.

The Dietary Inflammatory Index (DII)TM, which was developed to characterize the inflammatory potential of a person’s diet, has been shown to be associated with inflammatory conditions such as cancer. The present study aimed to investigate the association between DII scores and colorectal adenoma (CRA), a pre-cancerous condition.

Responses to baseline dietary questionnaires were used calculate DII scores. In a cross-sectional study design, the association between DII scores and CRA prevalence was determined in men and women separately using logistic regression models.

Ten cancer screening centres across the USA.

Participants were those included in the screening arm of the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial.

Among the 44 278 individuals included in these analyses, men with diets in the most inflammatory quartile of DII scores had higher odds of all types of CRA (advanced, non-advanced and multiple (>1)) compared with those with diets in the least inflammatory quartile of DII scores. In fully adjusted models, compared with those with DII scores in quartile 1 (least inflammatory), males with DII scores in quartile 3 (adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=1·28; 95 % CI 1·12, 1·47) and quartile 4 (aOR=1·41; 95 % CI 1·23, 1·62) were more likely to have prevalent distal CRA. Higher DII scores, representing a more inflammatory diet, also were weakly associated with a higher prevalence of CRA in women.

Implementing an anti-inflammatory diet may be an effective means of primary prevention of CRA, especially in men.

To compare the energy, nutrient and food group compositions of three sources of school-day lunches among students in five secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland (ROI).

Cross-sectional study conducted between October 2012 and March 2013. Students completed self-report food diaries over two school days. The energy, nutrient, nutrient density and food group composition of school-day lunches from home, school and ‘out’ in local food outlets were compared using ANCOVA and Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference post hoc analysis.

Five secondary schools in the ROI.

Male and female students aged 15–17 years (n 305).

Six hundred and fifteen lunches (376 home lunches, 115 school lunches and 124 lunches sourced ‘out’ in the local environment) were analysed. School and ‘out’ purchased lunches were significantly higher than packed lunches from home in energy (2047 kJ (489 kcal), 2664 kJ (627 kcal), 1671 kJ (399 kcal), respectively), total fat (23·5 g, 30·1 g, 16·6 g, respectively) and free (added) sugars (12·6 g, 19·3 g, 7·4 g, respectively). More home lunches contained more fruit, wholemeal breads, cheese and red meat than lunches from school or ‘out’. Meat products, chips and high-calorie beverages were sourced more frequently at school or ‘out’ than home. Fibre and micronutrient contents of lunches from all sources were low.

Home-sourced lunches had the healthiest nutritional profile in terms of energy and macronutrients. Foods high in energy, fat and free sugars associated with school and local food outlets are of concern given the public health focus to reduce their consumption. While school food should be improved, all sources of lunches need to be considered when addressing the dietary behaviours of secondary-school students.

To describe the introduction of complementary foods in a population-based cohort in relation to recommendations and explore the possible impact of maternal education on infant feeding practices.

Prospective data from the All Babies in Southeast Sweden (ABIS) cohort study were used. The ABIS study invited all infants born in south-east Sweden during October 1997–October 1999 (n 21 700) to participate. A questionnaire was completed for 16 022 infants. During the infants’ first year parents continuously filed in a diary covering introduction of foods.

Sweden.

Infants (n 9727) with completed food diaries.

Potatoes, vegetables, fruits/berries and porridge were the foods first introduced, with a median introduction between 19 and 22 weeks, followed by introduction of meat, cow’s milk, follow-on formula and sour milk/yoghurt between 24 and 27 weeks. Early introduction of any food, before 16 weeks, occurred for 27 % of the infants and was more common in infants of mothers with low education. Overall, potatoes (14·7 %), vegetables (11·1 %), fruits/berries (8·5 %), porridge (7·4 %) and follow-on formula (2·7 %) were the foods most frequently introduced early. The majority of infants (≥70 %) were introduced to potatoes, vegetables, fruits/berries and porridge during concurrent breast-feeding, but introduction during concurrent breast-feeding was less common in infants of mothers with low education.

Most infants were introduced to complementary foods timely in relation to recommendations. Low maternal education was associated with earlier introduction of complementary foods and less introduction during concurrent breast-feeding. Still, the results indicated exposure to fewer foods at 12 months in infants of mothers with low education.

Breast-feeding initiation rates have increased in the USA; however, maintenance of breast-feeding for recommended durations is low. The objective of the present study was to identify factors that may facilitate breast-feeding for longer durations among first-time mothers, including physiological and social experiences and changes in maternal perceptions.

Survival analysis and linear regression methods were used to explore the relationship between experiences and breast-feeding duration, and the possible mediating effect of changes in maternal perceptions.

Secondary data from the Infant Feeding Practices Study II, conducted in the USA between 2005 and 2007.

Data from 762 first-time mothers who ever breast-fed were analysed.

Experiencing trouble with baby’s latch, problems with milk flow/supply and painful breast-feeding were significantly associated with breast-feeding duration (64, 26 and 36 % shorter duration, respectively). Meanwhile, positive changes in perception with respect to breast-feeding self-efficacy, opinion about infant feeding and belief about breast milk were associated with 16–27 % longer duration. Furthermore, changes in perception were observed to partially mediate the impact of physiological experiences on breast-feeding duration.

Perceptions of breast-feeding self-efficacy, beliefs and opinions can change over time and are influenced by breast-feeding experiences. The combined effect of experience and perception plays a key role in influencing breast-feeding duration. Future research should explore interventions to maintain or improve these perceptions while accounting for physiological experiences to support breast-feeding for recommended durations among first-time mothers.

To describe dietary patterns (DP) from 1996 to 2006 and in the first 5 years of life and to explore individual and contextual characteristics associated with each DP.

DP were defined by principal component analysis. The association between DP and individual (sociodemographic, maternal and child) and contextual (geographic regional and year) characteristics was analysed by multilevel analysis.

Two complex probabilistic Brazilian Demographic and Health Surveys (BDHS 1996, 2006).

Brazilian children under 5 years of age.

DP1 included yoghurt, vegetables, fruits, tubers, red meat. DP2 included liquids, milk, fruits, egg/chicken/fish, red meat, breast milk (negative loading). DP3 included fruit juices, ‘papilla’, yoghurt, red meat (negative loading). DP4 included formulas, milk, enriched ‘papilla’, egg/chicken/fish (negative loading). DP prevalence within the age range from 1996 to 2006 remained constant for DP1; increased after 12 and 6 months, respectively, for DP2 and DP3; and decreased for DP4. DP1 was explained by higher maternal education, wealth, lower number of children at home; DP2 by living in rural area and younger mothers; and DP4 by lower maternal education and wealth. The total variance of the model attributable to geographic region was 30·2, 20·7 and 54·2 % for DP2, DP3 and DP4, respectively.

DP trends observed from 1996 to 2006 show positive aspects, such as: maintenance of DP1 as the main DP after 12 months; an increase in the prevalence of DP2 and DP3 followed by a decrease of DP4 after 6 months. DP1 is explained mainly by socio-economic factors, regardless of contextual characteristics, and DP2, DP3, DP4 are partially explained by contextual effects.

Public health decision makers not only consider health benefits but also economic implications when articulating and issuing lifestyle recommendations. Whereas various estimates exist for the economic burden of physical inactivity, excess body weight and smoking, estimates of the economic burden associated with our diet are rare. In the present study, we estimated the economic burden attributable to the inadequate consumption of vegetables and fruit in Canada.

We accessed the Canadian Community Health Survey to assess the inadequacy in the consumption of vegetables and fruit and published meta-analyses to assemble risk estimates for chronic diseases. Based on these inadequacy and risk estimates, we calculated the population-attributable fraction and avoidable direct and indirect costs to society. Direct costs include those for hospital care, physician services and drugs in 2015.

About 80 % of women and 89 % of men consume inadequate amounts of vegetables and fruit. We estimated this to result in an economic burden of $CAN 3·3 billion per year, of which 30·5 % is direct health-care costs and 69·5 % is indirect costs due to productivity losses. A modest 1 percentage point annual reduction in the prevalence of inadequate vegetables and fruit consumption over the next 20 years would avoid approximately $CAN 10·8 billion, and an increase of one serving of vegetables and fruit per day would avoid approximately $CAN 9·2 billion.

Further investments in the promotion of vegetables and fruit will prevent chronic disease and substantially reduce direct and indirect health-care costs.

To identify a high-sugar (HS) dietary pattern, a high-saturated-fat (HF) dietary pattern and a combined high-sugar and high-saturated-fat (HSHF) dietary pattern and to explore if these dietary patterns are associated with depressive symptoms.

We used data from the HELIUS (Healthy Life in an Urban Setting) study and included 4969 individuals aged 18–70 years. Diet was assessed using four ethnic-specific FFQ. Dietary patterns were derived using reduced rank regression with mono- and disaccharides, saturated fat and total fat as response variables. The nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) was used to assess depressive symptoms by using continuous scores and depressed mood (identified using the cut-off point: PHQ-9 sum score ≥10).

The Netherlands.

Three dietary patterns were identified; an HSHF dietary pattern (including chocolates, red meat, added sugars, high-fat dairy products, fried foods, creamy sauces), an HS dietary pattern (including sugar-sweetened beverages, added sugars, fruit (juices)) and an HF dietary pattern (including high-fat dairy products, butter). When comparing extreme quartiles, consumption of an HSHF dietary pattern was associated with more depressive symptoms (Q1 v. Q4: β=0·18, 95 % CI 0·07, 0·30, P=0·001) and with higher odds of depressed mood (Q1 v. Q4: OR=2·36, 95 % CI 1·19, 4·66, P=0·014). No associations were found between consumption of the remaining dietary patterns and depressive symptoms.

Higher consumption of an HSHF dietary pattern is associated with more depressive symptoms and with depressed mood. Our findings reinforce the idea that the focus should be on dietary patterns that are high in both sugar and saturated fat.