The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of flattened and flattening filter-free (FFF) beam 6 MV photon beam for liver stereotactic body radiation therapy by using volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) technique in deep inspiration breath hold (DIBH) and free breathing condition.

Eight liver metastasis patients (one to three metastasis lesions) were simulated in breath hold and free breathing condition. VMAT-based treatment plans were created for a prescription dose of 50 Gy in 10 fractions, using a 230° coplaner arc and 60° non-coplanar arc for both DIBH and free breathing study set. Treatment plans were evaluated for planning target volume (PTV) dose coverage, conformity and hot spots. Parallel and serial organs at risk were compared for average and maximum dose, respectively. Dose spillages were evaluated for different isodose volumes from 5 to 80%.

Mean D98% (dose received by 98% target volume) for FFF in DIBH, flattened beam in DIBH, FFF in free breathing and flatten beam in free breathing dataset were 48·9, 47·81, 48·5 and 48·3 Gy, respectively. D98% was not statistically different between FFF and flatten beam (p = 0·34 and 0·69 for DIBH and free breathing condition). PTV V105% (volume receiving 105% dose) for the same set were 3·76, 0·25, 1·2 and 0·4%, respectively. Mean heterogeneity index for all study sets and beam models varies between 1·05 and 1·07. Paddik conformity index using unflattened and flattened beam in DIBH at 98% prescription dose were 0·91 and 0·79, respectively. Maximum variation of isodose volume was observed for I-5%, which was ranging between 2288·8 and 2427·2 cm3. Increase in isodose value shows a diminishing difference in isodose volumes between different techniques. DIBH yields a significant reduction in the chest wall dose compared with free breathing condition. Average monitor units for FFF beam in DIBH, flattened beam in DIBH, FFF beam in free breathing CT dataset and flattened beam in free breathing CT dataset were 1318·6 ± 265·1, 1940·3 ± 287·6, 1343·3 ± 238·1 and 2192·5 ± 252·6 MU.

DIBH and FFF is a good combination to reduce the treatment time and to achieve better tumour conformity. No other dosimetric gain was observed for FFF in either DIBH or free breathing condition.

This work reports our study to commission a radiochromic film dosimetry system using the timely EBT3 film. We carried out dosimetric evaluations on different characteristics of photon beams (e.g., flatness, symmetry and penumbra) in radiation dose delivery.

A Varian linear accelerator producing 6 and 15 MV photon beams with 120 multi-leaf collimator was used in this study. PTW ionisation chamber was used to measure the beam characteristics such as symmetry, flatness and penumbra and these measurements were used to commission the radiochormic EBT3 film dosimetry system. The results of irradiated films were analysed using the radiochromic film QA Pro software 2016.

The measured film doses were analysed at two different colour channels (green and red) using two scanning geometries (i.e., upper or lower side of film facing the scanner light source) at two dose levels (10 and 40 Gy). The difference between the ionisation chamber and film results was found insignificant and within the acceptable range as per the World Health Organisation standard.

Results of the comparison between the ionisation chamber and film measurements show that our radiochormic EBT3 film dosimetry system is reliable and cost-effective in the output measurement of a linear accelerator. Our measurements confirm that our EBT3 film dosimetry agreed well with the ionisation chamber, and can be used as a re-validation tool for linear accelerator quality control.

To assess helical tomotherapy (TOMO) current clinical application and practice in mainland China.

Data were collected for all TOMO units clinically operational in mainland China by 30 April 2016, including (a) the distribution of installation and staffing levels; (b) types of cancers treated; (c) utilisation efficiency; (d) quality assurance; (e) maintenance; (f) optional features; and (g) satisfaction levels. The data were collected as a census and analysed qualitatively and quantitatively.

As of 30 April 2016, 23 TOMO units were used clinically by 22 hospitals in mainland China. In the same period, 22,558 cancer patients were treated. For TOMO units with more than a year of clinical utilisation, a median of 378 cases were treated annually per machine. The median daily operation was 10·5 hours, and treatment headcount was 38·3 patients. The median service outage rate was 2·6%, and the most common cause was malfunction of the multi-leaf collimator. In terms of overall satisfaction levels, 3 hospitals were very satisfied, 16 were satisfied and 3 considered their satisfaction level as average.

The overall operation of TOMO is good, but there are some problems due to running at full capacity, lack of clinical efficacy research and insufficient quality assurance regulations.

The purpose of this study is to introduce a new approach to assess the dosimetry quality of photon beam with energy and irradiation field size. This approach is based on percentage depth dose (PDD) fragmentation for investigating the dosimetry quality.

For the investigation of the dosimetry quality of 6 and 18 MV photon beams, we have proceeded to fragment the PDD at different field sizes. This approach checks the overall PDD and is not restricted to the exponential decay regions, as per the International Atomic Energy Agency Technical Reports Series No 398 and the American Association of Physicist in Medicine Task Group 51 recommendations.

The 6 MV photon beam deposited more energy in the target volume than the 18 MV photon beam. The dose delivered by the 6 MV beam is greater by a factor of 1·5 than that delivered by the 18 MV beam in the build-up region and the dose delivered by the 6 MV beam is greater by a factor of 2·6 than that delivered by the 18 MV beam in the electronic equilibrium and the exponential decay regions.

The dose measured at different points of the beam is higher for 6 MV than for 18 MV photon beam. Therefore, the 6 MV beam is more dosimetrically efficient than the 18 MV beam. Using the proposed approach, we can assess the dosimetry quality by taking into account overall PDD not only in the exponential decay region but also in the field.

Stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is widely used for the treatment of stage-I non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Patient-specific motion correlated with 4DCT could be essential for hypofractionated SBRT. All patients undergoing SBRT do not require motion management during the dose delivery. The objective of this study was to evaluate which patient may benefit from Gated SBRT.

Treatment planning of 20 patients of stage-I NSCLC was analysed. Conventional and 4DCT scans were taken. Internal target volume as well as planning target volume (ITV and PTV) were determined in the CT data sets. PTVall phases created using 4DCT data sets and PTV15mm created using conventional CT data were compared. Also, ITVall phases were compared with ITV created from maximum intensity projections (ITVMIP). Suitability of patients for motion management-based treatment delivery was also evaluated.

The average ITVMIP to ITVall phases ratio is 1·06 indicating good agreement between them. Based on the ratio of intensity projections, 9 out of 17 patients were found suitable for our existing gated treatment.

4D CT is the main requirement in SBRT to identify the patients who can benefit from motion management during the dose delivery.

To investigate the modalities of tumour bed (TB) localisation of target volume delineation [clinically computed tomography (CT), ultrasound (US) compared with surgical clips-guided] and the impact of their differences in delineated TB volumes.

In total, 27 patients who underwent oncoplastic breast conservative surgery with surgical clips insertion (at least three) were included. CT and US imaging for TB localisation were done 3–4 weeks post-operatively in the same treatment position. TB was delineated four times, guided by surgical clips, clinical data, CT (seroma) and US. A plan was done for each TB delineated. The four delineated volumes were compared regarding the volumetric differences, the geographical miss index (GMI) and the overlap index.

Comparing the four modalities, median TB volume was for clinical (60.7), CT (60.8) and US (49.3) cm3, in comparison with 59.7 cm3 for clips, p=0.05. Median of GMI (represented the tissue at risk of recurrence and not had been treated) was for clinical (61.8), CT (45) and US (62.4)%, with significant difference of p=0.02. Median of normal tissue index (normal tissue has been included unnecessarily) was for clinical (59.5), CT (49.6) and US (62.3)%, p=0.17. Overlap index with clips-guided was for clinical (0.36), CT (0.42) and US (0.35) with significance of p=0.04. Median superior/inferior direction was 0.72, −0.03 and −0.2 cm for clinical, CT and US, respectively, with significant value of p=0.02, whereas the anterior–posterior was −0.07, −0.15 and −0.09 cm, p-value=0.45 and the medio–lateral was 0.4, −0.13 and 0.09 cm, p=0.60.

Significant differences in shifts and indices were detected between each of modalities compared with surgical clips. Thus, in the setting of oncoplastic breast surgery, surgical clips should be routinely used for TB localisation. In view of the larger volumes of breast tissue excised and the extensive remodelling that are inherent to oncoplastic procedures, the concept of TB boost irradiation should be re-challenged.

The main aim was to examine the effect of bit depth on computed tomography (CT) number for high-density materials. Analysis of the CT number for high-density materials using 16-bit scanners will extend the CT scale that currently exists for 12-bit scanners and thus will be beneficial for use in CT–electron density (ED) curve in radiotherapy treatment planning system (TPS). Implementation of this extended CT scale will compensate for tissue heterogeneity during CT–ED conversion in treatment planning.

An in-house built phantom with 10 different metal samples was scanned using 80, 100 and 120 kVp in two different CT scanners. A region of interest was set at the centre of the material and the mean CT numbers together with data deviation were determined. Dosimetry calculation was performed by applying a direct anterior beam on 12-bit, 12-bit extended and 16-bit.

High-density materials (>4·34 g cm−3) in 16-bit depth provide disparities up to 44% compared to Siemens’ 12-bit extended. Influence of tube voltage showed a significant difference (p<0·05) in both bit depth and CT number of the gold and amalgam saturated in 16-bit depth. A 120 kVp energy illustrated a low variation on CT number for different scanners, but dosimetry calculation showed significant disparities at the metal interface in 12-bit, 12-bit extended and 16-bit.

High-density materials require 16-bit scanners to obtain CT number to be implemented in treatment planning in radiotherapy. This also suggests that proper tube voltage together with correct CT–ED resulted in accurate TPS algorithm calculation.

Research in the applications of the principles of quantum physics in oncology has progressed significantly over the past decades; and several research groups with professionals from diverse scientific background, including electrical engineers, mathematicians, biologists, atomic physicists, computer programmers, and biochemists, are working collaboratively in an unprecedented and pioneering economic, organisational and human effort searching for a wider and more effective, potentially definitive, understanding of the cancers. It is hypothesised that the principles of quantum physics could open new and broader understanding of the cancers and the development of new effective, targeted, accurate, personalised and possibly definitive cancer treatment.

This paper reports on a review of recent studies in the field of the applications of the principles of quantum physics in biology, chemistry, biochemistry and quantum physics in cancer research, including quantum physics principles and cancer, quantum modelling techniques, quantum dots and its applications in oncology, quantum cascade laser histopathology and quantum computing applications.

The applications of the principles of quantum physics in oncology, chemistry and biology are providing new perspectives and greater insights into a long-studied disease, which could result in a greater understanding of the cancers and the potential for personalised and definitive treatment methods.

To evaluate the use of exercise in managing fatigue in breast cancer patients undergoing adjuvant radiotherapy. To explore the effectiveness of different exercise practices and explore how optimum management of fatigue might be achieved.

A CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) database search of literature was undertaken and publications screened for retrieval with 24 qualifying for inclusion in the review.

There is evidence to support various forms of exercise including aerobic, resistance, alternative and combination exercise in the management of fatigue in early stage breast cancer patients undergoing adjuvant radiotherapy. The benefits of exercise for patients with later stage and metastatic disease is less clear and there is a lack of published research related to this category of patient.

Exercise is considered a safe, non-pharmacological intervention for early stage breast cancer patients receiving adjuvant radiotherapy. Further investigation is required into optimum exercise interventions and the effectiveness and viability of supervised and unsupervised models. Patient centred tailored advice and guidance needs to be developed and effectively promoted by therapeutic radiographers in order for patients to fully realise the benefit.

Bone-seeking radiopharmaceuticals are potential therapeutic tools for bone marrow ablation in patients with multiple myeloma. In this procedure, estimation of radiation absorbed dose received by the target and non-target organs is one of the most important parameters that should be undertaken. This research revolves around the absorbed dose to human organs after 90Y-BPAMD injection.

90Y-(4-{[(bis(phosphonomethyl))carbamoyl]methyl}-7,10-bis(carboxymethyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododec-1-yl) acetic acid (90Y-BPAMD) complex was successfully prepared under optimised conditions. The human absorbed dose of the complex was estimated based on the biodistribution data on rats using the radiation-absorbed dose-assessment resource method. The target to non-target absorbed dose ratios for the complex was compared with the ratios for 166Ho-DOTMP, as the main radiopharmaceutical for bone marrow ablation.

As expected, the highest amounts of absorbed dose were observed in the bone surface and the bone marrow with 2·52 and 2·29 mGy/MBq, respectively. The red marrow to the most organ absorbed dose ratios for 90Y-BPAMD are much higher than the ratios for 166Ho-DOTMP.

90Y-BPAMD has interesting characteristics compared with 166Ho-DOTMP and can be considered as a high potential agent for bone marrow ablative therapy of the patient with multiple myeloma.

This exploration is intended to analyse the dosimetric characteristics of proton beams of multiple energies using different snout sizes.

A synchrotron was used for the extraction of eight proton beam energies (100–250 MeV). Dosimetric measurements were taken in a water phantom that was irradiated with a proton beam emanating from the gantry system at angles 0, 90, 180 and 270 degree using a large and a medium snout. The range of beam energies in the phantom, their corresponding centre modulation depth (CMD) and the width of spread out Bragg peak (SOBP) were measured by Markus chamber. Double scattering technique was employed for the creation of SOBPs.

The range of proton beams varied from 4·3 cm for 100 MeV beam to 28·5 cm for 250 MeV beam with the medium snout and from 4·3 cm for 100 MeV to 25 cm for 250 MeV beam with large snout in the water phantom. SOBP width showed a variation from 4 to 10 cm with medium and large snout. While determining the output with medium snout, the discrepancy of 1·1% was observed between the maximum and minimum mean values of output for all the given set of energies and angles. There occurred a difference of 0·9% between the maximum and minimum mean values of output with the large snout. Beam output at SOBP centre was 12% higher with large snout as compared to that with medium snout for all the given beam energies. Flatness and symmetry were found within ±2·5% tolerance limits with medium and large snouts.

Flatness and symmetry were found within explicit limits with both medium and large snouts. Large snout produced higher beam output than that of medium snout at the centre of SOBP. This exploration can be extended to the determination of beam output, flatness and symmetry with a small snout.

The focus of this study is to find the optimal clinical tumour volume (CTV) to planning tumour volume (PTV) margins for precise radiotherapy treatment of prostate cancer. The geometrical shape of the target volume posses challenges in accurately identifying the CTV to PTV margins, especially when the organ affected by cancer demonstrates anatomical variations and the surrounding organs have high radio-sensitivity, in comparison to the organ of origin of the cancer.

The geometrical margins of CTV to PTV are investigated using portal imaging, in three directions. This study is carried out on 20 patients treated by the external photon beam radiotherapy of prostate cancer using standard accelerator without stereotaxic and without prostate markers.

Based on previous studies and the findings of our work, we propose CTV to PTV margin of 5·84 mm in the lateral direction, of 5·1 mm in the cranio-spinal direction and of 7·3 mm in the antero-posterior direction for external photon beam radiotherapy of prostate cancer.

The proposed CTV to PTV margins ensure high radiotherapy treatment precision of prostate cancer.

Use of molecular information to guide clinical management of thoracic liposarcoma following resection.

We present a case of a large liposarcoma of the left hemithorax. Initial biopsy consistent with lipoma however following resection pathology showed well-differentiated liposarcoma. Clinical data and molecular information including MDM2 from the tumour were employed in decision making regarding subsequent adjuvant radiation therapy versus close observation.

Improved molecular characterisation has increased the precision of histological diagnoses and prediction of outcomes for many cancers. These may continue to help guide and strengthen clinical decision making and recommendations as they pertain to adjuvant therapy versus observation in the case of this patient.

In this study, we undertake a dosimetric comparison of whole abdominal treatment plans of patients diagnosed with stage 3 Wilms tumour, to assess the benefits of treating these patients with volumetric arch therapy (VMAT) versus 3D conformal radiotherapy.

A retrospective study was undertaken on 23 patients receiving either VMAT or 3D conformal radiotherapy during 2013–2017. A dosimetric comparison was undertaken for both techniques, measuring planning target volume (PTV), conformity index (CI), homogeneity index (HI) and organs at risk (OAR).

The dosimetric parameters for the PTV dose in the VMAT and 3D conformal technique showed no statistical difference (1,289·17 cGy versus 1,357·13 cGy, respectively, p=0·404). However, the VMAT technique had a better CI (1·04 VMAT versus 1·26 3D, p=0·004), and there was little difference in the HI (1·13 VMAT versus 1·15 3D, p=0·1606). In the statistical analysis, the decrease in dose to OAR for the VMAT technique is statistically significant for doses to lung and kidney (p=0·011 and p=0·002, respectively). Between the two techniques, there was no statistical significance in dose difference to the other OAR.

This work proposes using the VMAT technique in whole abdominal irradiation to improve conformity, without affecting the quality of the PTV coverage, when compared with the 3D conformal technique. In addition, VMAT reduces the doses to OAR such as the remaining kidney and lungs that are important to preserve to reduce the probability of radiation toxicity in these patients.

A comparison of anisotropic analytical algorithm (AAA) and Acuros XB (AXB) dose calculation algorithms with Electron Gamma Shower (EGSnrc) Monte Carlo (MC) for modelling lung and bone heterogeneities encountered during enhanced dynamic wedged (EDWs) radiotherapy dose deliveries was carried out.

In three heterogenous slab phantoms: water–bone, lung–bone and bone–lung, wedged percentage depth doses with EGSnrc, AAA and AXB algorithms for 6 MV photons for various field sizes (5×5, 10×10 and 20×20 cm2) and EDW angles (15°, 30°, 45° and 60°) have been scored.

For all the scenarios, AAA and AXB results were within ±1% of the MC in the pre-inhomogeneity region. For water–bone AAA and AXB deviated by 6 and 1%, respectively. For lung–bone an underestimation in lung (AAA: 5%, AXB: 2%) and overestimation in bone was observed (AAA: 13%, AXB: 4%). For bone–lung phantom overestimation in bone (AAA: 7%, AXB: 1%), a lung underdosage (AAA: 8%, AXB: 5%) was found. Post bone up to 12% difference in the AAA and MC results was observed as opposed to 6% in case of AXB.

This study demonstrated the limitation of the AAA (in certain scenarios) and accuracy of AXB for dose estimation inside and around lung and bone inhomogeneities. The dose perturbation effects were found to be slightly dependent on the field size with no obvious EDW dependence.

To verify dose delivery and quality assurance of volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for head and neck (H&N) cancer.

The Imaging and Radiation Oncology Core Houston (IROC-H) H&N phantom with thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) and films, were imaged with computed tomography scan and the reconstructed image was transferred to pinnacle treatment planning system (TPS). On TPS, the planning target volume (PTV), secondary target volume (STV) and organ at risk (OAR) were delineated manually and a treatment plan was made. The dose constraints were determined for the concerned organs according to IROC-H prescription. The treatment plan was optimised using adoptive convolution algorithm to improve dose homogeneity and conformity. The dose calculation was performed using C.C Convolution algorithm and a Varian True Beam linear accelerator was used to deliver the treatment plan to the H&N phantom. The delivered radiation dose to the phantom was measured through TLDs and GafChromic external beam radiotherapy 2 (EBT2) films. The dosimetric performance of the VMAT delivery was studied by analysing percent dose difference, isodose line profile and gamma analysis of the TPS-computed dose and linac-delivered doses.

The percent dose difference of 3.8% was observed between the planned and measured doses of TLDs and a 1.5-mm distance to agreement (DTA) was observed by comparing isodose line profiles. Passed the gamma criteria of 3%/3 mm was with good percentages.

The dosimetric performance of VMAT delivery for a challenging H&N radiotherapy can be verified using TLDs and films embedded in an anthropomorphic H&N phantom.

One of the stereotactic radiosurgery techniques is Gamma Knife radiosurgery, in which intracranial lesions that are inaccessible or inappropriate for surgery are treated using 201 cobalt-60 sources in one treatment session. In this conformal technique, the penumbra width, which results in out-of-field dose in tumour-adjacent normal tissues should be determined accurately. The aim of this study is to calculate the penumbra widths of single and 201 beams for different collimator sizes of Gamma Knife machine model 4C using EGSnrc/BEAMnrc Monte Carlo simulation code and comparison the results with EBT3 film dosimetry data.

In this study, simulation of Gamma Knife machine model 4C was performed based on the Monte Carlo codes of EGSnrc/BEAMnrc. To investigate the physical penumbra width (80−20%), the single beam and 201 beams profiles were obtained using EGSnrc/DOSXYZnrc code and EBT3 films located at isocentre point in a spherical Plexiglas head phantom.

Based on the results, the single beam penumbra widths obtained from simulation data for 4, 8, 14 and 18 mm collimator sizes along X axis were 0·75, 0·77, 0·90 and 0·92 mm, respectively. The data for 201 beams obtained from simulation were 2·61, 4·80, 7·92 and 9·81 mm along X axis and 1·31, 1·60, 1·91 and 2·14 mm along Z axis and from film dosimetry were 3·21, 4·90, 8·00 and 10·61 mm along X axis and 1·22, 1·69, 2·01 and 2·25 mm along Z axis, respectively.

The differences between measured and simulated penumbra widths are in an acceptable range. However, for more precise measurement in the penumbra region in which dose gradient is high, Monte Carlo simulation is recommended.