Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-vfjqv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T11:43:52.582Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 40 - Diabetes in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)

from Section 5 - Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2017

By
Abel Wah-Ek Soh ,
Lay-Kok Tan  and
George Seow-Heong Yeo
Edited by
David James ,
Philip Steer ,
Carl Weiner ,
Bernard Gonik  and
Stephen Robson
David James
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
Philip Steer
Affiliation:
Imperial College London
Carl Weiner
Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Bernard Gonik
Affiliation:
Wayne State University, Detroit
Stephen Robson
Affiliation:
University of Newcastle
Get access

Summary

Diabetes mellitus is a common and important medical complication affecting pregnancy.

The prevalence of diabetes worldwide has risen considerably in recent years. This is in part due to increasing rates of obesity in developed countries, which has reached epidemic proportions.

Type
Chapter
Information
High-Risk Pregnancy
Management Options
 , pp. 1159 - 1190
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
First published in: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Mitchell, S, Shaw, D. The worldwide epidemic of female obesity. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2015; 29: 289–99.Google Scholar
Misra, A, Ramchandran, A, Jayawardena, R, Shrivastava, U, Snehalatha, C. Diabetes in South Asians. Diabet Med 2014; 31: 1153–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diabetes care and research in Europe: the Saint Vincent declaration. Diabet Med 1990; 7: 360.Google Scholar
Bell, R, Bailey, K, Cresswell, T, et al. Trends in prevalence and outcomes of pregnancy in women with pre-existing type I and type II diabetes. BJOG 2008; 115: 445–52.Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association. Gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2004; 27 (Suppl 1): S88–90.Google Scholar
International Association of Diabetes Pregnancy Study Groups Consensus Panel. International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 676–82.Google Scholar
Reece, EA, Homko, CJ. Why do diabetic women deliver malformed infants? Clin Obstet Gynecol 2000; 43: 32–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Towner, D, Kjos, SL, Leung, B, et al. Congenital malformations in pregnancies complicated by NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 1446–51.Google Scholar
Sharpe, PB, Chan, A, Haan, EA, Hiller, JE. Maternal diabetes and congenital anomalies in South Australia 1986–2000: a population-based cohort study. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 2005; 73: 605–11.Google Scholar
Farrell, T, Neale, L, Cundy, T. Congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with type 1, type 2 and gestational diabetes. Diabet Med 2002; 19: 322–6.Google Scholar
Garner, P. Type I diabetes mellitus and pregnancy. Lancet 1995; 346: 157–61.Google Scholar
Berk, MA, Mimouni, F, Miodovnik, M, Hertzberg, V, Valuck, J. Macrosomia in infants of insulin-dependent diabetic mothers. Pediatrics 1989; 83: 1029–34.Google Scholar
Macfarlane, CM, Tsakalakos, N. The extended Pedersen hypothesis. Clin Physiol Biochem 1988; 6: 68–73.Google Scholar
Nesbitt, TS, Gilbert, WM, Herrchen, B. Shoulder dystocia and associated risk factors with macrosomic infants born in California. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 179: 476–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sandmire, HF, O’Halloin, TJ. Shoulder dystocia: its incidence and associated risk factors. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1988; 26: 65–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mollberg, M, Hagberg, H, Bager, B, Lilja, H, Ladfors, L. High birthweight and shoulder dystocia: the strongest risk factors for obstetrical brachial plexus palsy in a Swedish population-based study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2005; 84: 654–9.Google Scholar
HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1991–2002.Google Scholar
Lindsay, RS. Many HAPO returns: maternal glycemia and neonatal adiposity: new insights from the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) study. Diabetes 2009; 58: 302-3.Google Scholar
Sacks, DA. Fetal macrosomia and gestational diabetes: what’s the problem? Obstet Gynecol 1993; 81: 775–81.Google Scholar
Persson, B, Hanson, U. Fetal size at birth in relation to quality of blood glucose control in pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes mellitus. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 103: 427–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Combs, CA, Gunderson, E, Kitzmiller, JL, Gavin, LA, Main, EK. Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 1251–7.Google Scholar
Peck, RW, Price, DE, Lang, GD, MacVicar, J, Hearnshaw, JR. Birthweight of babies born to mothers with type 1 diabetes: is it related to blood glucose control in the first trimester? Diabet Med 1991; 8: 258–62.Google Scholar
Lock, M, McGillick, EV, Orgeig, S, McMillen, IC, Morrison, JL. Regulation of fetal lung development in response to maternal overnutrition. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2013; 40: 803–16.Google Scholar
De Luca, R, Boulvain, M, Irion, O, Berner, M, Pfister, RE. Incidence of early neonatal mortality and morbidity after late-preterm and term cesarean delivery. Pediatrics 2009; 123: e1064–71.Google Scholar
Mitanchez, D. Fetal and neonatal complications in gestational diabetes: perinatal mortality, congenital malformations, macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, birth injuries, neonatal complications. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 617–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, TR. A comparison of amniotic fluid fetal pulmonary phospholipids in normal and diabetic pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: 641–50.Google Scholar
Esakoff, TF, Cheng, YW, Sparks, TN, Caughey, AB. The association between birthweight 4000 g or greater and perinatal outcomes in patients with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 200: 672.e1–4.Google Scholar
Crowther, CA, Hiller, JE, Moss, JR, et al. Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 2477–86.Google Scholar
Horvath, K, Koch, K, Jeitler, K, et al. Effects of treatment in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2010; 340: c1395.Google Scholar
Cundy, T, Gamble, G, Townend, K, et al. Perinatal mortality in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2000; 17: 33–9.Google Scholar
HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study: associations with neonatal anthropometrics. Diabetes 2009; 58: 453–9.Google Scholar
Mitanchez, D. Management of infants born to mothers with gestational diabetes. Paediatric environment. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 587–94.Google Scholar
Tsang, RC, Ballard, J, Braun, C. The infant of the diabetic mother: today and tomorrow. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1981; 24: 125–47.Google Scholar
Katz, L, Tsang, RC. Hypocalcemia in infants of diabetic mothers. J Pediatr 1972; 81: 633–4.Google Scholar
Landon, MB. Is there a benefit to the treatment of mild gestational diabetes mellitus? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010; 202: 649–53.Google Scholar
Catov, JM, Ness, RB, Kip, KE, Olsen, J. Risk of early or severe pre-eclampsia related to pre-existing conditions. Int J Epidemiol 2007; 36: 412–19.Google Scholar
Schneider, S, Freerksen, N, Rohrig, S, Hoeft, B, Maul, H. Gestational diabetes and preeclampsia: similar risk factor profiles? Early Hum Dev 2012; 88: 179–84.Google Scholar
Ostlund, I, Haglund, B, Hanson, U. Gestational diabetes and preeclampsia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004; 113: 12–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yogev, Y, Xenakis, EM, Langer, O. The association between preeclampsia and the severity of gestational diabetes: the impact of glycemic control. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 1655–60.Google Scholar
Hartling, L, Dryden, DM, Guthrie, A, et al. Benefits and harms of treating gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and the National Institutes of Health Office of Medical Applications of Research. Ann Intern Med 2013; 159: 123–9.Google Scholar
Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH). Pregnancy in Women with Type 2 and Type 2 Diabetes in 2002–03, England, Wales and Northern Ireland. London: CEMACH 2005.Google Scholar
Wahabi, HA, Alzeidan, RA, Bawazeer, GA, Alansari, LA, Esmaeil, SA. Preconception care for diabetic women for improving maternal and fetal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2010; 10: 63.Google Scholar
Wahabi, HA, Alzeidan, RA, Esmaeil, SA. Pre-pregnancy care for women with pre-gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health 2012; 12: 792.Google Scholar
Ray, JG, O’Brien, TE, Chan, WS. Preconception care and the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. QJM 2001; 94: 435–44.Google Scholar
Lipscombe, LL, McLaughlin, HM, Wu, W, Feig, DS. Pregnancy planning in women with pregestational diabetes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2011; 24: 1095–101.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management of Diabetes and its Complications from Preconception to the Postnatal Period. Clinical Guideline 63. London: NICE, 2008. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg63 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Guerin, A, Nisenbaum, R, Ray, JG. Use of maternal GHb concentration to estimate the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with prepregnancy diabetes. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 1920–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Diabetes Association. 12. Management of diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2015; 38 (Suppl): S77–9.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management from Preconception to the Postnatal Period. NICE Guideline 3. London: NICE, 2015. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 977–86.Google Scholar
Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee. Diabetes and pregnancy. Can J Diabetes 2013; 37 (Suppl 1): S168–83.Google Scholar
Wilson, RD, Johnson, JA, Wyatt, P, et al. Pre-conceptional vitamin/folic acid supplementation 2007: the use of folic acid in combination with a multivitamin supplement for the prevention of neural tube defects and other congenital anomalies. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007; 29: 1003–26.Google Scholar
Ray, JG, Vermeulen, MJ, Shapiro, JL, Kenshole, AB. Maternal and neonatal outcomes in pregestational and gestational diabetes mellitus, and the influence of maternal obesity and weight gain: the DEPOSIT study. Diabetes Endocrine Pregnancy Outcome Study in Toronto. QJM 2001; 94: 347–56.Google Scholar
Kovo, M, Haroutiunian, S, Feldman, N, Hoffman, A, Glezerman, M. Determination of metformin transfer across the human placenta using a dually perfused ex vivo placental cotyledon model. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2008; 136: 29–33.Google Scholar
Nanovskaya, TN, Nekhayeva, IA, Patrikeeva, SL, Hankins, GD, Ahmed, MS. Transfer of metformin across the dually perfused human placental lobule. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 195: 1081–5.Google Scholar
Falavigna, M, Schmidt, MI, Trujillo, J, et al. Effectiveness of gestational diabetes treatment: a systematic review with quality of evidence assessment. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2012; 98: 396–405.Google Scholar
Coetzee, EJ, Jackson, WP. Pregnancy in established non-insulin-dependent diabetics. A five-and-a-half year study at Groote Schuur Hospital. S Afr Med J 1980; 58: 795–802.Google Scholar
Coetzee, EJ, Jackson, WP. Oral hypoglycaemics in the first trimester and fetal outcome. S Afr Med J 1984; 65: 635–7.Google ScholarPubMed
Hellmuth, E, Damm, P, Molsted-Pedersen, L. Oral hypoglycaemic agents in 118 diabetic pregnancies. Diabet Med 2000; 17: 507–11.Google Scholar
Jakubowicz, DJ, Iuorno, MJ, Jakubowicz, S, Roberts, KA, Nestler, JE. Effects of metformin on early pregnancy loss in the polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 524–9.Google Scholar
Glueck, CJ, Wang, P, Goldenberg, N, Sieve-Smith, L. Pregnancy outcomes among women with polycystic ovary syndrome treated with metformin. Hum Reprod 2002; 17: 2858–64.Google Scholar
Glueck, CJ, Wang, P, Kobayashi, S, Phillips, H, Sieve-Smith, L. Metformin therapy throughout pregnancy reduces the development of gestational diabetes in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Fertil Steril 2002; 77: 520-5.Google Scholar
Kovo, M, Weissman, A, Gur, D, et al. Neonatal outcome in polycystic ovarian syndrome patients treated with metformin during pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2006; 19: 415–19.Google Scholar
Bolton, S, Cleary, B, Walsh, J, Dempsey, E, Turner, MJ. Continuation of metformin in the first trimester of women with polycystic ovarian syndrome is not associated with increased perinatal morbidity. Eur J Pediatr 2009; 168: 203–6.Google Scholar
Gilbert, C, Valois, M, Koren, G. Pregnancy outcome after first-trimester exposure to metformin: a meta-analysis. Fertil Steril 2006; 86: 658–63.Google Scholar
Elliott, BD, Schenker, S, Langer, O, Johnson, R, Prihoda, T. Comparative placental transport of oral hypoglycemic agents in humans: a model of human placental drug transfer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 653–60.Google Scholar
Hebert, MF, Ma, X, Naraharisetti, SB, et al. Are we optimizing gestational diabetes treatment with glyburide? The pharmacologic basis for better clinical practice. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2009; 85: 607–14.Google Scholar
Gutzin, SJ, Kozer, E, Magee, LA, Feig, DS, Koren, G. The safety of oral hypoglycemic agents in the first trimester of pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 10: 179–83.Google Scholar
Blumer, I, Hadar, E, Hadden, DR, et al. Diabetes and pregnancy: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 4227–49.Google Scholar
Pollex, E, Moretti, ME, Koren, G, Feig, DS. Safety of insulin glargine use in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Pharmacother 2011; 45: 9-16.Google Scholar
Cooper, WO, Hernandez-Diaz, S, Arbogast, PG, et al. Major congenital malformations after first-trimester exposure to ACE inhibitors. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2443–51.Google Scholar
Quan, A. Fetopathy associated with exposure to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor antagonists. Early Hum Dev 2006; 82: 23–8.Google Scholar
Velazquez-Armenta, EY, Han, JY, Choi, JS, Yang, KM, Nava-Ocampo, AA. Angiotensin II receptor blockers in pregnancy: a case report and systematic review of the literature. Hypertens Pregnancy 2007; 26: 51–66.Google Scholar
Kazmin, A, Garcia-Bournissen, F, Koren, G. Risks of statin use during pregnancy: a systematic review. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007; 29: 906-8.Google Scholar
Edison, RJ, Muenke, M. Central nervous system and limb anomalies in case reports of first-trimester statin exposure. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 1579–82.Google Scholar
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 2000; 23: 1084–91.Google Scholar
Chew, EY, Mills, JL, Metzger, BE, et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy. The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes Care 1995; 18: 631–7.Google Scholar
Vestgaard, M, Ringholm, L, Laugesen, CS, et al. Pregnancy-induced sight-threatening diabetic retinopathy in women with type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2010; 27: 431–5.Google Scholar
Rosenn, B, Miodovnik, M, Kranias, G, et al. Progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: association with hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 166: 1214–18.Google Scholar
Ekbom, P, Damm, P, Feldt-Rasmussen, B, et al. Pregnancy outcome in type 1 diabetic women with microalbuminuria. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: 1739–44.Google Scholar
Dunne, FP, Chowdhury, TA, Hartland, A, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus complicated by nephropathy. QJM 1999; 92: 451–4.Google Scholar
Sibai, BM, Caritis, S, Hauth, J, et al. Risks of preeclampsia and adverse neonatal outcomes among women with pregestational diabetes mellitus. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182: 364–9.Google Scholar
Biesenbach, G, Grafinger, P, Stoger, H, Zazgornik, J. How pregnancy influences renal function in nephropathic type 1 diabetic women depends on their pre-conceptional creatinine clearance. J Nephrol 1999; 12: 41–6.Google Scholar
Gordon, M, Landon, MB, Samuels, P, Hissrich, S, Gabbe, SG. Perinatal outcome and long-term follow-up associated with modern management of diabetic nephropathy. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87: 401–9.Google Scholar
Diagnostic criteria and classification of hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy: a World Health Organization Guideline. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014; 103: 341–63.Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015; 38 (Suppl): S8–16.Google Scholar
Committee on Practice Bulletins – Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin No. 137: Gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 406–16.Google Scholar
Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society. ADIPS Consensus Guidelines for the Testing and Diagnosis of Hyperglycaemia in Pregnancy in Australia and New Zealand, 2014. http://adips.org/downloads/ADIPSConsensusGuidelinesGDM-03.05.13VersionACCEPTEDFINAL.pdf (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
McCarthy, AD, Curciarello, R, Castiglione, N, et al. Universal versus selective screening for the detection, control and prognosis of gestational diabetes mellitus in Argentina. Acta Diabetol 2010; 47: 97–103.Google Scholar
Teh, WT, Teede, HJ, Paul, E, et al. Risk factors for gestational diabetes mellitus: implications for the application of screening guidelines. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2011; 51: 26–30.Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes: 2009. Diabetes Care 2009; 32 (Suppl 1): S13–61.Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes: 2014. Diabetes Care 2014; 37 (Suppl 1): S14–80.Google Scholar
Tan, YY, Yeo, GS. Impaired glucose tolerance in pregnancy: is it of consequence? Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 36: 248–55.Google Scholar
Morikawa, M, Yamada, T, Yamada, T, et al. Change in the number of patients after the adoption of IADPSG criteria for hyperglycemia during pregnancy in Japanese women. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 90: 339–42.Google Scholar
Agarwal, MM, Dhatt, GS, Shah, SM. Gestational diabetes mellitus: simplifying the international association of diabetes and pregnancy diagnostic algorithm using fasting plasma glucose. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 2018–20.Google Scholar
O’Sullivan, EP, Avalos, G, O’Reilly, M, et al. Atlantic Diabetes in Pregnancy (DIP): the prevalence and outcomes of gestational diabetes mellitus using new diagnostic criteria. Diabetologia 2011; 54: 1670–5.Google Scholar
Bodmer-Roy, S, Morin, L, Cousineau, J, Rey, E. Pregnancy outcomes in women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus according to the International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups criteria. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 120: 746–52.Google Scholar
Ekeroma, AJ, Chandran, GS, McCowan, L, et al. Impact of using the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups criteria in South Auckland: prevalence, interventions and outcomes. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2015; 55: 34–41.Google Scholar
Mission, JF, Ohno, MS, Cheng, YW, Caughey, AB. Gestational diabetes screening with the new IADPSG guidelines: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 207: 326.e1–9.Google Scholar
Werner, EF, Pettker, CM, Zuckerwise, L, et al. Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus: are the criteria proposed by the international association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups cost-effective? Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 529–35.Google Scholar
Landon, MB, Spong, CY, Thom, E, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1339–48.Google Scholar
de Veciana, M, Major, CA, Morgan, MA, et al. Postprandial versus preprandial blood glucose monitoring in women with gestational diabetes mellitus requiring insulin therapy. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1237–41.Google Scholar
Weisz, B, Shrim, A, Homko, CJ, et al. One hour versus two hours postprandial glucose measurement in gestational diabetes: a prospective study. J Perinatol 2005; 25: 241–4.Google Scholar
Ben-Haroush, A, Yogev, Y, Chen, R, Rosenn, B, Hod, M, Langer, O. The postprandial glucose profile in the diabetic pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 576–81.Google Scholar
Kitzmiller, JL, Block, JM, Brown, FM, et al. Managing preexisting diabetes for pregnancy: summary of evidence and consensus recommendations for care. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 1060–79.Google Scholar
Hernandez, TL, Friedman, JE, Van Pelt, RE, Barbour, LA. Patterns of glycemia in normal pregnancy: should the current therapeutic targets be challenged? Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 1660–8.Google Scholar
Metzger, BE, Buchanan, TA, Coustan, DR, et al. Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30 (Suppl 2): S251–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lurie, S. Changes in age distribution of erythrocytes during pregnancy: a longitudinal study. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1993; 36: 141–4.Google Scholar
Mosca, A, Paleari, R, Dalfra, MG, et al. Reference intervals for hemoglobin A1c in pregnant women: data from an Italian multicenter study. Clin Chem 2006; 52: 1138–43.Google Scholar
Radder, JK, van Roosmalen, J. HbA1c in healthy, pregnant women. Neth J Med 2005; 63: 256–9.Google Scholar
Gandhi, RA, Brown, J, Simm, A, Page, RC, Idris, I. HbA1c during pregnancy: its relationship to meal related glycaemia and neonatal birth weight in patients with diabetes. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2008; 138: 45–8.Google Scholar
Voormolen, DN, DeVries, JH, Evers, IM, Mol, BW, Franx, A. The efficacy and effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring during pregnancy: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv 2013; 68: 753-63.Google Scholar
Yu, F, Lv, L, Liang, Z, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring effects on maternal glycemic control and pregnancy outcomes in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 4674–82.Google Scholar
Feig, DS, Donovan, LE, Corcoy, R, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes (CONCEPTT): a multicentre international randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2017; 390: 2347–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32400-5.Google Scholar
Jones, LV, Ray, A, Moy, FM, Buckley, BS. Techniques of monitoring blood glucose during pregnancy for women with pre-existing diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019; 5: CD009613. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009613.pub4.Google Scholar
American Diabetes Association. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 2008; 31 (Suppl 1): S61–78.Google Scholar
Major, CA, Henry, MJ, De Veciana, M, Morgan, MA. The effects of carbohydrate restriction in patients with diet-controlled gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 600–4.Google Scholar
Viana, LV, Gross, JL, Azevedo, MJ. Dietary intervention in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials on maternal and newborn outcomes. Diabetes Care 2014; 37: 3345–55.Google Scholar
Mikines, KJ, Sonne, B, Farrell, PA, Tronier, B, Galbo, H. Effect of physical exercise on sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin in humans. Am J Physiol 1988; 254: E248–59.Google Scholar
Artal, R, Catanzaro, RB, Gavard, JA, Mostello, DJ, Friganza, JC. A lifestyle intervention of weight-gain restriction: diet and exercise in obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2007; 32: 596–601.Google Scholar
Bung, P, Artal, R, Khodiguian, N, Kjos, S. Exercise in gestational diabetes: an optional therapeutic approach? Diabetes 1991; 40 (Suppl 2): 182–5.Google Scholar
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee opinion. Number 267, January 2002: exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 171–3.Google Scholar
Rowan, JA, Hague, WM, Gao, W, et al. Metformin versus insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 2003–15.Google Scholar
Rowan, JA, Rush, EC, Obolonkin, V, Battin, M, Wouldes, T, Hague, WM. Metformin in gestational diabetes: the offspring follow-up (MiG TOFU): body composition at 2 years of age. Diabetes Care 2011; 34: 2279–84.Google Scholar
Lautatzis, ME, Goulis, DG, Vrontakis, M. Efficacy and safety of metformin during pregnancy in women with gestational diabetes mellitus or polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review. Metabolism 2013; 62: 1522–34.Google Scholar
Su, DF, Wang, XY. Metformin vs insulin in the management of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2014.Google Scholar
Langer, O, Conway, DL, Berkus, MD, Xenakis, EM, Gonzales, O. A comparison of glyburide and insulin in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1134–8.Google Scholar
Langer, O, Yogev, Y, Xenakis, EM, Rosenn, B. Insulin and glyburide therapy: dosage, severity level of gestational diabetes, and pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005; 192: 134–9.Google Scholar
Moretti, ME, Rezvani, M, Koren, G. Safety of glyburide for gestational diabetes: a meta-analysis of pregnancy outcomes. Ann Pharmacother 2008; 42: 483–90.Google Scholar
Nicholson, W, Bolen, S, Witkop, CT, Neale, D, Wilson, L, Bass, E. Benefits and risks of oral diabetes agents compared with insulin in women with gestational diabetes: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113: 193–205.Google Scholar
Holt, RI, Lambert, KD. The use of oral hypoglycaemic agents in pregnancy. Diabet Med 2014; 31: 282–91.Google Scholar
Ogunyemi, D, Jesse, M, Davidson, M. Comparison of glyburide versus insulin in management of gestational diabetes mellitus. Endocr Pract 2007; 13: 427–8.Google Scholar
Mathiesen, ER, Hod, M, Ivanisevic, M, et al. Maternal efficacy and safety outcomes in a randomized, controlled trial comparing insulin detemir with NPH insulin in 310 pregnant women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 2012–7.Google Scholar
Mecacci, F, Carignani, L, Cioni, R, et al. Maternal metabolic control and perinatal outcome in women with gestational diabetes treated with regular or lispro insulin: comparison with non-diabetic pregnant women. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003; 111: 19–24.Google Scholar
Pettitt, DJ, Ospina, P, Howard, C, Zisser, H, Jovanovic, L. Efficacy, safety and lack of immunogenicity of insulin aspart compared with regular human insulin for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabet Med 2007; 24: 1129–35.Google Scholar
Torlone, E, Di Cianni, G, Mannino, D, Lapolla, A. Insulin analogs and pregnancy: an update. Acta Diabetol 2009; 46: 163–72.Google Scholar
Gallen, IW, Jaap, A, Roland, JM, Chirayath, HH. Survey of glargine use in 115 pregnant women with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2008; 25: 165–9.Google Scholar
Poyhonen-Alho, M, Ronnemaa, T, Saltevo, J, Ekblad, U, Kaaja, RJ. Use of insulin glargine during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2007; 86: 1171–4.Google Scholar
Price, N, Bartlett, C, Gillmer, M. Use of insulin glargine during pregnancy: a case-control pilot study. BJOG 2007; 114: 453–7.Google Scholar
Fang, YM, MacKeen, D, Egan, JF, Zelop, CM. Insulin glargine compared with neutral protamine hagedorn insulin in the treatment of pregnant diabetics. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 22: 249–53.Google Scholar
Smith, JG, Manuck, TA, White, J, Merrill, DC. Insulin glargine versus neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin for treatment of diabetes in pregnancy. Am J Perinatol 2009; 26: 57–62.Google Scholar
Egerman, RS, Ramsey, RD, Kao, LW, et al. Perinatal outcomes in pregnancies managed with antenatal insulin glargine. Am J Perinatol 2009; 26: 591-5.Google Scholar
Imbergamo, MP, Amato, MC, Sciortino, G, et al. Use of glargine in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus: a case-control study. Clin Ther 2008; 30: 1476–84.Google Scholar
Pollex, EK, Feig, DS, Lubetsky, A, Yip, PM, Koren, G. Insulin glargine safety in pregnancy: a transplacental transfer study. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 29–33.Google Scholar
Hofmann, T, Horstmann, G, Stammberger, I. Evaluation of the reproductive toxicity and embryotoxicity of insulin glargine (LANTUS) in rats and rabbits. Int J Toxicol 2002; 21: 181–9.Google Scholar
Lepercq, J, Jacqueminet, S, Hieronimus, S, Timsit, J, Grimaldi, A. Use of insulin glargine throughout pregnancy in 102 women with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 209-12.Google Scholar
Negrato, CA, Rafacho, A, Negrato, G, et al. Glargine vs. NPH insulin therapy in pregnancies complicated by diabetes: an observational cohort study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2010; 89: 46–51.Google Scholar
Nachum, Z, Ben-Shlomo, I, Weiner, E, Shalev, E. Twice daily versus four times daily insulin dose regimens for diabetes in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 1999; 319: 1223–7.Google Scholar
Evers, IM, ter Braak, EW, de Valk, HW, et al. Risk indicators predictive for severe hypoglycemia during the first trimester of type 1 diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2002; 25: 554–9.Google Scholar
Nielsen, LR, Pedersen-Bjergaard, U, Thorsteinsson, B, et al. Hypoglycemia in pregnant women with type 1 diabetes: predictors and role of metabolic control. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 9–14.Google Scholar
Kimmerle, R, Heinemann, L, Delecki, A, Berger, M. Severe hypoglycemia incidence and predisposing factors in 85 pregnancies of type I diabetic women. Diabetes Care 1992; 15: 1034–7.Google Scholar
Ringholm, L, Pedersen-Bjergaard, U, Thorsteinsson, B, Damm, P, Mathiesen, ER. Hypoglycaemia during pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 2012; 29: 558–66.Google Scholar
Leinonen, PJ, Hiilesmaa, VK, Kaaja, RJ, Teramo, KA. Maternal mortality in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2001; 24: 1501–2.Google Scholar
Sibai, BM, Viteri, OA. Diabetic ketoacidosis in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123: 167–78.Google Scholar
Beischer, NA, Wein, P, Sheedy, MT, Steffen, B. Identification and treatment of women with hyperglycaemia diagnosed during pregnancy can significantly reduce perinatal mortality rates. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1996; 36: 239–47.Google Scholar
Cullen, MT, Reece, EA, Homko, CJ, Sivan, E. The changing presentations of diabetic ketoacidosis during pregnancy. Am J Perinatol 1996; 13: 449–51.Google Scholar
Bochner, CJ, Medearis, AL, Williams, J, et al. Early third-trimester ultrasound screening in gestational diabetes to determine the risk of macrosomia and labor dystocia at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157: 703–8.Google Scholar
Balsells, M, Garcia-Patterson, A, Gich, I, Corcoy, R. Ultrasound-guided compared to conventional treatment in gestational diabetes leads to improved birthweight but more insulin treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2014; 93: 144–51.Google Scholar
Hedderson, MM, Ferrara, A, Sacks, DA. Gestational diabetes mellitus and lesser degrees of pregnancy hyperglycemia: association with increased risk of spontaneous preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102: 850–6.Google Scholar
Nelson, L, Wharton, B, Grobman, WA. Prediction of large for gestational age birth weights in diabetic mothers based on early third-trimester sonography. J Ultrasound Med 2011; 30: 1625–8.Google Scholar
Yogev, Y, Langer, O. Spontaneous preterm delivery and gestational diabetes: the impact of glycemic control. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2007; 276: 361–5.Google Scholar
Ostlund, I, Hanson, U, Bjorklund, A, et al. Maternal and fetal outcomes if gestational impaired glucose tolerance is not treated. Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 2107–11.Google Scholar
Mathiesen, ER, Christensen, AB, Hellmuth, E, et al. Insulin dose during glucocorticoid treatment for fetal lung maturation in diabetic pregnancy: test of an algorithm. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002; 81: 835–9.Google Scholar
Thiebaugeorges, O, Guyard-Boileau, B. Obstetrical care in gestational diabetes and management of preterm labour. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 672–81.Google Scholar
Gabbe, SG, Carpenter, LB, Garrison, EA. New strategies for glucose control in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2007; 50: 1014–24.Google Scholar
Garabedian, C, Deruelle, P. Delivery (timing, route, peripartum glycemic control) in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Metab 2010; 36: 515–21.Google Scholar
Rosenstein, MG, Cheng, YW, Snowden, JM, et al. The risk of stillbirth and infant death stratified by gestational age in women with gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 206: 309.e1–7.Google Scholar
Montgomery (Appellant) v Lanarkshire Health Board (Respondent) (Scotland) [2015] UKSC 11. 2015.Google Scholar
Donnelly, V, Foran, A, Murphy, J, et al. Neonatal brachial plexus palsy: an unpredictable injury. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 1209–12.Google Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Shoulder Dystocia, 2nd edn. Green-top Guideline No. 42. London: RCOG, 2012.Google Scholar
Obenshain, SS, Adam, PA, King, KC, et al. Human fetal insulin response to sustained maternal hyperglycemia. N Engl J Med 1970; 283: 566–70.Google Scholar
Taylor, R, Lee, C, Kyne-Grzebalski, D, Marshall, SM, Davison, JM. Clinical outcomes of pregnancy in women with type 1 diabetes(1). Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 537–41.Google ScholarPubMed
Barrett, HL, Morris, J, McElduff, A. Watchful waiting: a management protocol for maternal glycaemia in the peripartum period. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2009; 49: 162–7.Google Scholar
Kitzmiller, JL, Gavin, L. Preexisting diabetes and pregnancy. In Lavin, N (ed.), Manual of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 3rd edn. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, VA, Eglinton, GS, Rauch, ER, Skupski, DW. Intrapartum maternal glycemic control in women with insulin requiring diabetes: a randomized clinical trial of rotating fluids versus insulin drip. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 195: 1095–9.Google Scholar
Mollberg, M, Hagberg, H, Bager, B, Lilja, H, Ladfors, L. Risk factors for obstetric brachial plexus palsy among neonates delivered by vacuum extraction. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 913–18.Google Scholar
Robertshaw, HJ, McAnulty, GR, Hall, GH. Strategies for managing the diabetic patient. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2004; 18: 631–43.Google Scholar
Grylack, LJ, Chu, SS, Scanlon, JW. Use of intravenous fluids before cesarean section: effects on perinatal glucose, insulin, and sodium homeostasis. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63: 654–8.Google Scholar
Kenepp, NB, Kumar, S, Shelley, WC, et al. Fetal and neonatal hazards of maternal hydration with 5% dextrose before caesarean section. Lancet 1982; 1: 1150–2.Google Scholar
Kim, C, Newton, KM, Knopp, RH. Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Diabetes Care 2002; 25: 1862–8.Google Scholar
Glueck, CJ, Wang, P. Metformin before and during pregnancy and lactation in polycystic ovary syndrome. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2007; 6: 191–8.Google Scholar
Glueck, CJ, Salehi, M, Sieve, L, Wang, P. Growth, motor, and social development in breast- and formula-fed infants of metformin-treated women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Pediatr 2006; 148: 628–32.Google Scholar
Feig, DS, Briggs, GG, Kraemer, JM, et al. Transfer of glyburide and glipizide into breast milk. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 1851–5.Google Scholar
Cordero, L, Treuer, SH, Landon, MB, Gabbe, SG. Management of infants of diabetic mothers. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1998; 152: 249–54.Google Scholar
Sobngwi, E, Boudou, P, Mauvais-Jarvis, F, et al. Effect of a diabetic environment in utero on predisposition to type 2 diabetes. Lancet 2003; 361: 1861–5.Google Scholar
Vaarasmaki, M, Pouta, A, Elliot, P, et al. Adolescent manifestations of metabolic syndrome among children born to women with gestational diabetes in a general-population birth cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2009; 169: 1209–15.Google Scholar
Clausen, TD, Mathiesen, ER, Hansen, T, et al. Overweight and the metabolic syndrome in adult offspring of women with diet-treated gestational diabetes mellitus or type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 2464–70.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×