Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-45l2p Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T07:02:30.087Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 34 - Respiratory Disease in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)

from Section 5 - Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 November 2017

By
Marie Smith  and
Lucy Mackillop
Edited by
David James ,
Philip Steer ,
Carl Weiner ,
Bernard Gonik  and
Stephen Robson
David James
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham
Philip Steer
Affiliation:
Imperial College London
Carl Weiner
Affiliation:
University of Kansas
Bernard Gonik
Affiliation:
Wayne State University, Detroit
Stephen Robson
Affiliation:
University of Newcastle
Get access

Summary

Respiratory symptoms are common in pregnancy, and it is important to differentiate normal physiological gestation adaptations from warning signs of more serious underlying pathology. Women with significant underlying respiratory disease can be at risk of clinical deterioration during pregnancy and should be aware of the potential consequences for themselves and their baby in order to make informed family planning choices. In contrast, women with mild respiratory problems typically tolerate pregnancy well and should be encouraged to optimize their treatment to achieve the best pregnancy outcomes.

Type
Chapter
Information
High-Risk Pregnancy
Management Options
 , pp. 943 - 972
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
First published in: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Templeton, A, Kelman, GR. Maternal blood-gases, (PAO2–PaO2), physiological shunt and VD/VT in normal pregnancy. Br J Anaesth 1976; 48: 1001–4.Google Scholar
Hankins, GD, Clark, SL, Harvey, CJ, et al. Third-trimester arterial blood gas and acid base values in normal pregnancy at moderate altitude. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 88: 347–50.Google Scholar
Cugell, DW, Frank, NR, Gaensler, EA, Badger, TL. Pulmonary function in pregnancy. I. Serial observations in normal women. Am Rev Tuberc 1953; 67: 568–97.Google Scholar
Prowse, CM, Gaensler, EA. Respiratory and acid–base changes during pregnancy. Anesthesiology 1965; 26: 381–92.Google Scholar
Bourjeily, G, Powrie, R. Normal respiratory changes in pregnancy. In Rosene-Montella, K, Keely, EJ, Lee, RV, Barbour, LA (eds), Medical Care of the Pregnant Patient, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, PA: ACP Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Greer, IA, Walters, B, Nelson-Piercy, C. Maternal Medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2007.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Asthma surveillance data. http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/most_recent_data.htm (accessed June 2018).Google Scholar
Kwon, HL, Triche, EW, Belanger, K, Bracken, MB. The epidemiology of asthma during pregnancy: prevalence, diagnosis, and symptoms. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2006; 26: 29–62.Google Scholar
Schatz, M, Hoffman, C. Interrelationships between asthma and pregnancy: clinical and mechanistic considerations. Clin Rev Allergy 1987; 5: 301–15.Google Scholar
Schatz, M, Harden, K, Forsythe, A, et al. The course of asthma during pregnancy, post partum, and with successive pregnancies: a prospective analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988; 81: 509–17.Google Scholar
Murphy, VE, Namazy, JA, Powell, H, et al. A meta-analysis of adverse perinatal outcomes in women with asthma. BJOG 2011; 118: 1314–23.Google Scholar
Tata, LJ, Lewis, SA, McKeever, TM, et al. Effect of maternal asthma, exacerbations and asthma medication use on congenital malformations in offspring: a UK population-based study. Thorax 2008; 63: 981–7.Google Scholar
Murphy, VE, Wang, G, Namazy, JA, et al. The risk of congenital malformations, perinatal mortality and neonatal hospitalisation among pregnant women with asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG 2013; 120: 812–22.Google Scholar
Schatz, M. Asthma and pregnancy. Lancet 1999; 353: 1202–4.Google Scholar
Landau, R, Xie, HG, Dishy, V, et al. Beta2-Adrenergic receptor genotype and preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 1294–8.Google Scholar
Wen, HJ, Chiang, TL, Lin, SJ, Guo, YL. Predicting risk for childhood asthma by pre-pregnancy, perinatal, and postnatal factors. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2015; 26: 272–9.Google Scholar
Laerum, BN, Svanes, C, Wentzel-Larsen, T, et al. Young maternal age at delivery is associated with asthma in adult offspring. Respir Med 2007; 101: 1431–8.Google Scholar
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma: Summary Report 2007. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, 2007.Google Scholar
British Thoracic Society, Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. British Guideline on the Management of Asthma: A National Clinical Guideline. Edinburgh: SIGN, 2016. https://www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/document-library/clinical-information/asthma/btssign-asthma-guideline-2016 (accessed June 2018).Google Scholar
Bakhireva, LN, Schatz, M, Chambers, CD. Effect of maternal asthma and gestational asthma therapy on fetal growth. J Asthma 2007; 44: 71–6.Google Scholar
Cydulka, RK, Emerman, CL, Schreiber, D, et al. Acute asthma among pregnant women presenting to the emergency department. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 887–92.Google Scholar
Carmichael, SL, Shaw, GM, Ma, C, et al. Maternal corticosteroid use and orofacial clefts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 197: 585.e1–7.Google Scholar
Kelly, KN, Domajnko, B. Perioperative stress-dose steroids. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2013; 26: 163–7.Google Scholar
Ajetunmobi, OM, Whyte, B, Chalmers, J, et al. Breastfeeding is associated with reduced childhood hospitalization: evidence from a Scottish birth cohort (1997–2009). J Pediatr 2015; 166: 620–4.Google Scholar
Cystic Fibrosis Trust. UK Cystic Fibrosis Registry 2014 Annual Data Report. London: Cystic Fibrosis Trust, 2016.Google Scholar
Edenborough, FP. Women with cystic fibrosis and their potential for reproduction. Thorax 2001; 56: 649–55.Google Scholar
Cystic Fibrosis Trust. UK Cystic Fibrosis Registry. https://www.cysticfibrosis.org.uk/the-work-we-do/uk-cf-registry (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Thorpe-Beeston, JG, Madge, S, Gyi, K, Hodson, M, Bilton, D. The outcome of pregnancies in women with cystic fibrosis: single centre experience 1998–2011. BJOG 2013; 120: 354–61.Google Scholar
Edenborough, FP, Mackenzie, WE, Stableforth, DE. The outcome of 72 pregnancies in 55 women with cystic fibrosis in the United Kingdom 1977–1996. BJOG 2000; 107: 254–61.Google Scholar
Ødegaard, I, Stray-Pedersen, B, Hallberg, K, et al. Maternal and fetal morbidity in pregnancies of Norwegian and Swedish women with cystic fibrosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002; 81: 698–705.Google Scholar
Jankelson, D, Robinson, M, Parsons, S, Torzillo, P, Peat, B, Bye, P. Cystic fibrosis and pregnancy. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1998; 38: 180–4.Google Scholar
Gillet, D, de Braekeleer, M, Bellis, G, Durieu, I; French Cystic Fibrosis Registry. Cystic fibrosis and pregnancy. Report from French data (1980–1999). BJOG 2002; 109: 912–18.Google Scholar
Lau, EM, Barnes, DJ, Moriarty, C, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in the current era of cystic fibrosis care: a 15-year experience. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2011; 51: 220–4.Google Scholar
Edenborough, FP, Borgo, G, Knoop, C, et al. Guidelines for the management of pregnancy in women with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 2008; 7 (Suppl 1): S2–32.Google Scholar
Burden, C, Ion, R, Chung, Y, et al. Current pregnancy outcomes in women with cystic fibrosis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2012; 164: 142–5.Google Scholar
Lyon, A, Bilton, D. Fertility issues in cystic fibrosis. Paediatr Respir Rev 2002; 3: 236–40.Google Scholar
Hilman, BC, Aitken, ML, Constantinescu, M. Pregnancy in patients with cystic fibrosis. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1996; 39: 70–86.Google Scholar
McMullen, AH, Pasta, DJ, Frederick, PD, et al. Impact of pregnancy on women with cystic fibrosis. Chest 2006; 129: 706–11.Google Scholar
Edenborough, FP, Stableforth, DE, Webb, AK, Mackenzie, WE, Smith, DL. Outcome of pregnancy in women with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 1995; 50: 170–4.Google Scholar
Kent, NE, Farquharson, DF. Cystic fibrosis in pregnancy. CMAJ 1993; 149: 809–13.Google Scholar
Frangolias, DD, Nakielna, EM, Wilcox, PG. Pregnancy and cystic fibrosis: a case-controlled study. Chest 1997; 111: 963–9.Google Scholar
Gilljam, M, Antoniou, M, Shin, J, et al. Pregnancy in cystic fibrosis. Fetal and maternal outcome. Chest 2000; 118: 85–91.Google Scholar
Briard, ML, Mattei, JF. Cystic fibrosis: preimplantation diagnosis, prenatal diagnosis and medical ethics, a successful combination. Pediatr Pulmonol Suppl 1997; 16: 65.Google Scholar
Tonelli, MR, Aitken, ML. Pregnancy in cystic fibrosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2007; 13: 537–40.Google Scholar
Catalano, PM, McIntyre, HD, Cruickshank, JK, et al. The hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome study: associations of GDM and obesity with pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Care 2012; 35: 780–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metzger, BE, Lowe, LP, Dyer, AR, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1991–2002.Google Scholar
Suhonen, L, Hiilesmaa, V, Teramo, K. Glycaemic control during early pregnancy and fetal malformations in women with type I diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 2000; 43: 79–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mackie, AD, Thornton, SJ, Edenborough, FP. Cystic fibrosis-related diabetes. Diabet Med 2003; 20: 425–36.Google Scholar
Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council (US) Committee to Reexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2009. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK32813 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Rothman, KJ, Moore, LL, Singer, MR, et al. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1369–73.Google Scholar
Sawyer, SM, Phelan, PD, Bowes, G. Reproductive health in young women with cystic fibrosis: knowledge, behaviour and attitudes. J Adolesc Health Care 1995; 17: 46–50.Google Scholar
Fair, A, Griffiths, K, Osman, LM. Attitudes to fertility issues among adults with cystic fibrosis in Scotland. Thorax 2000; 55: 672–7.Google Scholar
Nixon, GM, Glazner, JA, Martin, JM, Sawyer, SM. Female sexual health care in cystic fibrosis. Arch Dis Child 2003; 88: 265–6.Google Scholar
Oxley, H, Webb, AK. How a clinical psychologist manages the problems of adults with cystic fibrosis. J R Soc Med 2005; 98 (Suppl 45): 37–46.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Diabetes in Pregnancy: Management from Preconception to the Postnatal Period. NICE Guideline 3. London: NICE, 2015. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng3 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Hadid, V, Patenaude, V, Oddy, L, Abenhaim, H. Sarcoidosis and pregnancy: obstetric and neonatal outcomes in a population-based cohort. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123 (Suppl 1): 148S.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cremers, JP, Drent, M, Bast, A, et al. Multinational evidence-based World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders recommendations for the use of methotrexate in sarcoidosis: integrating systematic literature research and expert opinion of sarcoidologists worldwide. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2013; 19: 545–61.Google Scholar
Subramanian, P, Chinthalapalli, H, Krishnan, M, et al. Pregnancy and sarcoidosis: an insight into the pathogenesis of hypercalciuria. Chest 2004; 126: 995–8.Google Scholar
Lapinsky, SE, Tram, C, Mehta, S, Maxwell, CV. Restrictive lung disease in pregnancy. Chest 2014; 145: 394–8.Google Scholar
Ward, S, Chatwin, M, Heather, S, Simonds, AK. Randomised controlled trial of non-invasive ventilation (NIV) for nocturnal hypoventilation in neuromuscular and chest wall disease patients with daytime normocapnia. Thorax 2005; 60: 1019–24.Google Scholar
Lal, A, Anderson, G, Cowen, M, Lindow, S, Arnold, AG. Pneumothorax and pregnancy. Chest 2007; 132: 1044–8.Google Scholar
MacDuff, A, Arnold, A, Harvey, J; BTS Pleural Disease Guideline Group. Management of spontaneous pneumothorax: British Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010. Thorax 2010; 65 (Suppl 2): ii18–31.Google Scholar
O’Brien, LM, Bullough, AS, Owusu, JT, et al. Snoring during pregnancy and delivery outcomes: a cohort study. Sleep 2013; 36: 1625–32.Google Scholar
Pérez-Chada, D, Videla, AJ, O’Flaherty, ME, et al. Snoring, witnessed sleep apnoeas and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2007; 86: 788–92.Google Scholar
Yinon, D, Lowenstein, L, Suraya, S, et al. Pre-eclampsia is associated with sleep-disordered breathing and endothelial dysfunction. Eur Respir J 2006; 27: 328–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Louis, J, Auckley, D, Bolden, N. Management of obstructive sleep apnea in pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 2012; 119: 864–8.Google Scholar
Franklin, KA, Holmgren, PA, Jönsson, F, et al. Snoring, pregnancy-induced hypertension, and growth retardation of the fetus. Chest 2000; 117: 137–41.Google Scholar
Chen, YH, Kang, JH, Lin, CC, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 206: 136.e1–5.Google Scholar
Knight, M, Kenyon, S, Brocklehurst, P, et al. Saving Lives, Improving Mothers’ Care: Lessons Learned to Inform Future Maternity Care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2009–2012. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, 2014.Google Scholar
Yau, W-P, Mitchell, AA, Lin, KJ, Werler, MM, Hernández-Díaz, S. Use of decongestants during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects. Am J Epidemiol 2013; 178: 198–208.Google Scholar
Namazy, JA, Schatz, M. Diagnosing rhinitis during pregnancy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2014; 14: 458.Google Scholar
Finland, M, Dublin, TD. Pneumococcic pneumonias complicating pregnancy and the puerperium. J Am Med Assoc 1939; 112: 1027–32.Google Scholar
Kourtis, AP, Read, JS, Jamieson, DJ. Pregnancy and infection. N Engl J Med 2014; 370: 2211–18.Google Scholar
Lim, WS, Baudouin, SV, George, RC, et al.; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax 2009; 64 (Suppl 3): iii1–55. doi: 10.1136/thx.2009.121434.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pneumonia in Adults: Diagnosis and Management. NICE Clinical Guideline 191. London: NICE, 2014. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Madinger, NE, Greenspoon, JS, Ellrodt, AG. Pneumonia during pregnancy: has modern technology improved maternal and fetal outcome? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 657–62.Google Scholar
Intensive Care National Audit & Research Centre. Female Admissions (Aged 16–50 years) to Adult, General Critical Care Units in England, Wales and Northern Ireland Reported as ‘Currently Pregnant’ or ‘Recently Pregnant’: 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2012. London: ICNARC, 2013.Google Scholar
Keller-Stanislawski, B, Englund, JA, Kang, G, et al. Safety of immunization during pregnancy: A review of the evidence of selected inactivated and live attenuated vaccines. Vaccine 2014; 32: 7057–64.Google Scholar
Andrews, N, McMenamin, J, Durnall, H, et al. Effectiveness of trivalent seasonal influenza vaccine in preventing laboratory-confirmed influenza in primary care in the United Kingdom: 2012/13 end of season results. Euro Surveill 2014; 19: 5–13.Google Scholar
Public Health England. Influenza Immunisation Programme for England. GP Patient Groups. Data Collection Survey, Season 2016 to 2017.Google Scholar
Sheffield, JS, Cunningham, FG. Community-acquired pneumonia in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 114: 915–22.Google Scholar
Yost, NP, Bloom, SL, Richey, SD, Ramin, SM, Cunningham, FG. An appraisal of treatment guidelines for antepartum community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 131–5.Google Scholar
Jefferson, T, Jones, M A, Doshi, P, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (4): CD008965.Google Scholar
Siston, AM, Rasmussen, SA, Honein, MA, et al. Pandemic 2009 influenza A(H1N1) virus illness among pregnant women in the United States. JAMA 2010; 303: 1517–25.Google Scholar
Creanga, AA, Kamimoto, L, Newsome, K, et al. Seasonal and 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection during pregnancy: a population-based study of hospitalized cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011; 204 (6 Suppl 1): S38–45.Google Scholar
Pierce, M, Kurinczuk, JJ, Spark, P, Brocklehurst, P, Knight, M; UKOSS. Perinatal outcomes after maternal 2009/H1N1 infection: national cohort study. BMJ 2011; 342: d3214–4.Google Scholar
Enders, G, Miller, E, Cradock-Watson, J, Bolley, I, Ridehalgh, M. Consequences of varicella and herpes zoster in pregnancy: prospective study of 1739 cases. Lancet 1994; 343: 1548–51.Google Scholar
Boyd, K, Walker, E. Use of acyclovir to treat chickenpox in pregnancy. Br Med J 1988; 296: 393–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandelbrot, L. Fetal varicella: diagnosis, management, and outcome. Prenat Diagn 2012; 32: 511–18.Google Scholar
Salisbury, D, Ramsay, M. Immunisation Against Infectious Disease. London: Public Health England, 2013.Google Scholar
Hamborsky, J, Kroger, A, Wolfe, S; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, 13th edn. Washington, DC: Public Health Foundation, 2015.Google Scholar
World Health Organization, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank. Trends in Maternal Mortality: 1990 to 2015. Geneva: WHO, 2015. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/monitoring/maternal-mortality-2015/en (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Report 2015. Geneva: WHO, 2015.Google Scholar
Sugarman, J, Colvin, C, Moran, AC, Oxlade, O. Tuberculosis in pregnancy: an estimate of the global burden of disease. Lancet Glob Health 2014; 2: e710–16.Google Scholar
Public Health England. Tuberculosis in the UK: 2017 Report. London: Public Health England, 2017.Google Scholar
Selwyn, PA, Hartel, D, Lewis, VA, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 545–50.Google Scholar
Zenner, D, Kruijshaar, ME, Andrews, N, Abubakar, I. Risk of tuberculosis in pregnancy: a national, primary care-based cohort and self-controlled case series study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012; 185: 779–84.Google Scholar
Jana, N, Vasishta, K, Jindal, SK, Khunnu, B, Ghosh, K. Perinatal outcome in pregnancies complicated by pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1994; 44: 119–24.Google Scholar
Jana, N, Vasishta, K, Saha, SC, Ghosh, K. Obstetrical outcomes among women with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 645–9.Google Scholar
Asuquo, B, Vellore, AD, Walters, G, et al. A case-control study of the risk of adverse perinatal outcomes due to tuberculosis during pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol 2012; 32: 635–8.Google Scholar
Bothamley, G. Drug treatment for tuberculosis during pregnancy: safety considerations. Drug Saf 2001; 24: 553–65.Google Scholar
Conway, N, Birt, BD. Streptomycin in pregnancy: effect on the foetal ear. Br Med J 1965; 2 (5456): 260–3.Google Scholar
Cantwell, MF, Shehab, ZM, Costello, AM, et al. Brief report: congenital tuberculosis. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1051–4.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. Treatment of Tuberculosis: Guidelines, 4th edn. Geneva: WHO, 2010.Google Scholar
Bothamley, GH. Screening for tuberculosis in pregnancy. Expert Rev Obstet Gynaecol 2012; 7: 387–95.Google Scholar
Getahun, H, Kittikraisak, W, Heilig, CM, et al. Development of a standardized screening rule for tuberculosis in people living with HIV in resource-constrained settings: individual participant data meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS Med 2011; 8(1): e1000391.Google Scholar
Jonnalagadda, S, Lohman, Payne B, Brown, E, et al. Latent tuberculosis detection by interferon γ release assay during pregnancy predicts active tuberculosis and mortality in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected women and their children. J Infect Dis 2010; 202: 1826–35.Google Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Tuberculosis. NICE Guideline 33. London: NICE, 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng33 (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
Nahid, P, Dorman, S, Alipanah, N, et al. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 63: 853–67. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciw566.Google Scholar
Snider, DE, Layde, PM, Johnson, MW, Lyle, MA. Treatment of tuberculosis during pregnancy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1980; 122: 65–79.Google ScholarPubMed
Saukkonen, JJ, Cohn, DL, Jasmer, RM, et al. An official ATS statement: hepatotoxicity of antituberculosis therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 174: 935–52.Google Scholar
Pickering, LK, Baker, CJ, Long, SS, McMillan, JA. Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 27th edn. Elk Grove, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 2006.Google Scholar
Mangtani, P, Abubakar, I, Ariti, C, et al. Protection by BCG vaccine against tuberculosis: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 470–80.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Latent Tuberculosis Infection: a Guide for primary health care providers. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2013.Google Scholar
American Thoracic Society. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: S221–47.Google Scholar
Pollock, W, Rose, L, Dennis, CL. Pregnant and postpartum admissions to the intensive care unit: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med 2010; 36: 1465–74.Google Scholar
ARDS Definition Task Force, Ranieri, VM, Rubenfeld, GD, Thompson, BT, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012; 307: 2526–33.Google Scholar
Spragg, RG, Bernard, GR, Checkley, W, et al. Beyond mortality: future clinical research in acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 181: 1121–7.Google Scholar
Phua, J, Badia, JR, Adhikari, NKJ, et al. Has mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome decreased over time? A systematic review. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179: 220–7.Google Scholar
Perry, KG, Martin, RW, Blake, PG, Roberts, WE, Martin, JN. Maternal mortality associated with adult respiratory distress syndrome. South Med J 1998; 91: 441–4.Google Scholar
Vasquez, DN, Estenssoro, E, Canales, HS, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of obstetric patients requiring ICU admission. Chest 2007; 131: 718–24.Google Scholar
Catanzarite, V, Willms, D, Wong, D, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in pregnancy and the puerperium: causes, courses, and outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 97: 760–4.Google Scholar
Montgomery, AB, Stager, MA, Carrico, CJ, Hudson, LD. Causes of mortality in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 132: 485–9.Google Scholar
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1301–8.Google Scholar
Gattinoni, L, Taccone, P, Carlesso, E, Marini, JJ. Prone position in acute respiratory distress syndrome: rationale, indications, and limits. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 188: 1286–93.Google Scholar
Ferguson, ND, Cook, DJ, Guyatt, GH, et al. High-frequency oscillation in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 795–805.Google Scholar
Young, D, Lamb, SE, Shah, S, et al. High-frequency oscillation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 806–13.Google Scholar
Peek, GJ, Mugford, M, Tiruvoipati, R, et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 1351–63.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×