Sponges are important components of intertidal marine communities. There is a lack of information about intertidal marine sponge diversity in the western coast of Portugal (North-east Atlantic). In the present work we identified the most common intertidal sponges of the western coast of Portugal, and made a comprehensive list of the intertidal species described so far for this region. Sponges belonging to the Classes Calcarea and Demospongiae were identified, the former class for the first time at these locations. Demospongiae are the most common intertidal sponges, present in all sampling locations. We used an integrative approach for Demospongiae identification, using both morphological and molecular characters. Molecular identification, using a CO1 marker proved to be helpful in the identification to the genus level, despite some limitations, such as difficulty in amplification experienced for sponges as well as non-target organisms. A total of 170 specimens were collected. Seven specimens (five species) belonged to the Class Calcarea and 163 specimens (23 species) to the Class Demospongiae. The demosponge Hymeniacidon perlevis was present at all sample locations. Calcarean species were primarily found in samples taken along the south-western coast.

The susceptibility of marine bacterial communities to copper pyrithione (CuPT2), zinc pyrithione (ZnPT2) and their degradation product is described and toxicities of these relatively new antifouling biocides compared with those of their harmful organotin (OT) predecessors, tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPT). These biocides were added to agar at concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 mg l−1 and coastal seawater including indigenous bacteria added to each batch of agar solution. The number of bacterial colony forming units (CFU) was measured after 7 days culture. Relative CFU (as a percentage of control) was more than 80% at a concentration of 0.01 mg l−1 of each compound, except for TBT. Relative CFU decreased as a function of dose of each biocide, although concentration-dependent changes in rate of CFU were relatively low during exposure to degradation products of CuPT2 and ZnPT2, pyridine N-oxide (PO) and pyridine-2-sulphonic acid (PSA). Based on comparisons of EC50, TBT was the most bacterio-toxic of the tested compounds (0.2 mg l−1), marginally more so than CuPT2 (0.3 mg l−1). Interestingly, EC50 values of degradation products of CuPT2 and ZnPT2, 2-mercaptopyridine N-oxide (HPT) and 2,2′-dithio-bispyridine N-oxide (PT2) were 0.8 and 0.5 mg l−1, respectively, lower than that of the parent chemical, ZnPT2 (1.4 mg l−1). The EC50 of PT2 was also lower than that of TPT (0.7 mg l−1), implying higher toxicity. Given the overlapping toxicity ranges, these results suggest that marine bacterial communities experience comparably high susceptibility to metal PTs and OTs during their life history.

Surface physical properties, hydrodynamics, biochemical cues, orientation and temporal scales play an important role in invertebrate larval recruitment on artificial substrates. In the present study, invertebrate recruitment on four different substrates (acrylic, stainless steel, ceramic and concrete panels) was investigated in two different orientations (vertical and horizontal) in the central Red Sea. Results showed significant variations in the abundance of benthic invertebrates between the different substrates. While barnacles and bivalves preferred panels placed in vertical positions, the abundance of bryozoans was high on horizontal panels. Artificial panel submersion season plays a significant role in the recruitment of benthic invertebrates on surfaces in the Red Sea. In conclusion, this study supports the overall notion that marine invertebrate recruitment on hard substrates is regulated by a combination of factors which include substrate type, orientation and submersion season.

The abundance pattern and species diversity of phytoplankton in the surface waters of the Golden Horn Estuary were investigated between August 2011 and July 2012 in relation to environmental factors. Seventy-eight phytoplankton taxa (38 diatoms, 30 dinoflagellates and 10 phytoflagellates) belonging to eight taxonomic classes were identified in bottle and net samples. Phytoplankton abundance increased in spring and summer (from March to August) and reached its highest (10,429 × 103 cells L−1) during the bloom of Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae) in the middle and upper estuary in late May. In general, phytoplankton abundance was higher in the middle estuary indicating more suitable conditions for phytoplankton growth, while species richness and diversity was higher in the lower estuary. The most abundant species were Skeletonema marinoi and Thalassiosira sp. among diatoms; Scrippsiella trochoidea among dinoflagellates; Plagioselmis prolonga and Heterosigma akashiwo among phytoflagellates. Diatoms were more abundant in the lower and middle estuary, while dinoflagellates and phytoflagellates in the upper estuary. The main factors causing the spatio-temporal variation of phytoplankton in the study area were temperature, salinity, water transparency and nutrients. Water transparency in the upper estuary is mostly influenced by organic and inorganic matter carried by two streams. As a result, this area should be considered a potential risk area for future algal blooms.

The South China Sea (SCS) is a biodiversity hotspot, however, most biodiversity surveys in the region are confined to shallow water reefs. Here, we studied the benthic habitat and fish assemblages in the upper mesophotic coral ecosystems (MCEs; 30–40 m) and SWRs (8–22 m) at three geographic locations (Luzon Strait; Palawan; and the Kalayaan Group of Islands) in the eastern SCS (also called the West Philippine Sea) using diver-based survey methods. Mean coral genera and fish species richness ranged from 17–25 (per 25 m2) and 11–17 (per 250 m2) in MCEs, respectively; although none of these were novel genera/species. Coral and fish assemblages were structured more strongly by location than by depth. Location differences were associated with the variability in benthic composition, wherein locations with higher hard coral cover had higher coral genera richness and abundance. Locations with higher algae and sand cover had higher diversity and density of fish herbivores and benthic invertivores. Fishing efforts may also have contributed to among-location differences as the highly exploited location had the lowest fish biomass. The low variation between depths may be attributed to the similar benthic composition at each location, the interconnectivity between depths due to hydrological conditions, fish motility, and the common fishing gears used in the Philippines that can likely extend beyond SWRs. Results imply that local-scale factors and anthropogenic disturbances probably dampen across-depth structuring in coral genera and fish species assemblages.

In this study, polyploidy level was determined by flow cytometry analysis. The effect of polyploidy by colchicine treatment was examined on the growth parameters, malondealdehyde (MDA), as well as activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) in response to different levels of salinity in Dunaliella salina. The results of algal growth indicated that 3 M NaCl was the optimal concentration of salt, since the highest enhancement in fresh and dry weight, chlorophyll and carotenoids, soluble sugar, glycerol, protein and starch content was observed in comparison to other concentrations. The amount of these metabolites declined in the concentrations under optimum salinity. The least and highest amounts of MDA were observed at 1 and 4 M NaCl respectively. Polyploidy in optimum concentration of salt, caused further increment of the above growth parameters. In relation to this, in most cases, treatment of 0.1% colchicine was most effective. The beneficial effects of polyploidy in non-optimal conditions were also found in some parameters such as biomass, chlorophyll, carotenoids, proteins and starch. Furthermore, the activity of antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD and POD showed a positive significant correlation with salt stress and these were maximized at 4 M NaCl. Polyploidy (especially colchicine 0.1%) affected activity of these antioxidant enzymes in some concentrations of salt. Overall, our results suggest that the microalgae has significantly different responses to salt stress based on ploidy levels.

Fertilization success will determine the rate at which a population can expand and is especially important when considering small, establishing or enduring communities. Introduced species frequently fail to establish reproductively functional populations due to strong Allee effects associated with low densities. The native European oyster, Ostrea edulis broods its fertilized eggs in the pallial cavity for a period of 8–10 days before releasing the larvae. It is considered a partial broadcast spawner and was used as a model species to assess the importance of Allee effects such as inter-individual distance on reproductive success. Distances between individual oysters within test plots in areas of known oyster density were used in conjunction with standardized brood size (n larvae g−1 total wet weight) to assess fertilization success. A significant, positive relationship was observed between brood size and oyster density. Oysters with a nearest neighbour ≤1.5 m were found to brood significantly more larvae than individuals with nearest neighbours ≥1.5 m. Therefore, high density sites need to be maintained to ensure the recovery and enhancement of this OSPAR Convention recognized species in decline.

Tube-building polychaetes are an important group of marine bioengineers in soft-bottom habitats, where they provide structures that potentially influence the composition of the benthic community. The present study investigated the effects of Diopatra cuprea tubes on the structure of the macrobenthic fauna found on a sandy beach of the Amazon coast. Samples were collected in June (rainy season) and September (dry season) 2012 in two different areas: (1) an area in which D. cuprea tubes were present, and (2) a control area, in which worm tubes were absent. A total of 53 taxa were found, of which 30 were associated exclusively with D. cuprea tubes. While large aggregations of D. cuprea were not found in the study area, the presence of even a single tube may have a significant influence on the environmental conditions available for other organisms, especially those adapted to consolidated or muddy substrates. The two areas presented different seasonal patterns. A significant increase in the abundance and richness of the macrofauna was observed in area 1 in the rainy season, when the density of worm tubes increased and the hydrodynamic conditions were less intense. The results of the study highlight the importance of this organism as an ecosystem engineer on the sandy beaches of the Amazon coast.

Despite being classed as an asocial species, aggregations of sea anemones can be common in abundant species. UK populations of the geographically common aggressive intertidal sea anemone Actinia equina, form clustered aggregations notwithstanding a violent nature towards neighbours and relatives. Smaller in body size, and more abundant than those found in warmer climates, little research has been undertaken to discover what factors affect body size. This study investigates whether aggregation, distance to neighbour, submergence at low tide or pH in rock pools affect body size of A. equina in their natural habitat. Populations were investigated at five sites on the Yorkshire coast during August and September 2016. A total of 562 anemones were recorded revealing that solitary anemones were significantly larger than those found in clustered aggregations. In addition, anemones found submerged in rock pools at low tide were significantly larger than those found on emergent rock, and smaller anemones were found in significantly higher pH conditions (8.5+) than larger anemones. Anemones submerged at low tide are constantly able to feed and not subject to harsh conditions such as wind exposure and temperature, hence they can achieve larger sizes. Consequently, the size of the anemones may reflect a trade-off between the benefits of aggregating in exposed environments and the costs of competition for a reduced food resource.

The worldwide population of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) encompasses seven subpopulations among the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. It has experienced declines across parts of its distribution, with the subpopulation of the South-west Atlantic listed as critically endangered by the IUCN Red List. The main threats to this subpopulation include its interaction with fisheries, coastal development, pollution and climate change. In this study, we sequenced mitochondrial DNA from 52 leatherback turtles in Brazil and combined these with published data from other Atlantic Ocean rookeries. The haplotype diversities of the Atlantic population rookeries ranged from 0.112 to 0.533 and are not directly proportional to current rookery sizes. The Brazilian rookery, despite recording low nest numbers per year, had the second-highest haplotype diversity among all Atlantic rookeries (h = 0.532). A mixed-stock analysis revealed that the South American pelagic aggregate is primarily composed of individuals from West Africa (84%), with contributions from the North Atlantic rookeries (14%). Leatherback turtles appear to have a complex phylogeographic pattern, showing evidence of multiple colonization events and a lack of isolation by distance. Our novel dataset, based on DNA sequences of 695 base pairs, will provide baseline data needed to understand population dynamics in the region, building comprehensive population assessments to support and develop management strategies. Having both the only known regular rookery in the South-west Atlantic, and a mixed-origin foraging area for the species along its coast, Brazil has a key role in the conservation of the leatherback turtle.

Nutrient enrichment is a significant cause of ecosystem change in coastal habitats worldwide. This study focuses on the change in a benthic macroinvertebrate community and environmental quality as assessed through different biotic indices following the construction of a sewage outfall pipe in the west of Scotland, from first implementation to seven years after operation of the pipe. Benthic macroinvertebrates are an important part of marine ecosystems because they mediate ecosystem processes and functions, are a key part of food webs and they provide many ecosystem services. Results indicated a clear change in benthic communities over time with an increase in species richness and changes to benthic community composition (specifically feeding type, bioturbation mode and ecological group) towards those indicative of organic enrichment. No clear spatial zonation was observed because organic carbon content increased over the entire area. According to a suite of benthic indices calculated, some negative changes were detectable following the start of sewage disposal, but largely negative community changes, and a change from ‘good’ to ‘moderate’ quality, only occurred seven years after implementation. The increase in species richness in response to increasing disturbance reduced the utility of a multi-metric index, the Infaunal Quality Index, which, instead of amplifying the signal of negative impact, dampened it. We suggest that any change in communities, regardless of direction, should be heeded, and species richness is a particularly sensitive and early warning indicator for this, but a suite of approaches is required to understand benthic community changes.

The Suape coastal zone has suffered since the 1980s the effects of anthropogenic action due to the construction of the industrial complex of Suape. This work aimed to evaluate the environmental conditions and possible eutrophication processes of the area. Six campaigns were carried out, three in the dry season (November 2015, January and April 2016) and three in the rainy season (July 2015, July and August 2016). Water samples were collected at the surface during low tide and high tide, in neap tides. Salinity ranged from 19.75 to 37.20, the dissolved oxygen rate ranged from 61.75 to 125.90% and chlorophyll-a from 0.02 to 3.48 mg m−3. Water transparency, temperature, nitrate and silicate presented significant seasonal variation, the concentrations of nutrients being higher in the rainy season and the others in the dry season. Water transparency, salinity, dissolved oxygen saturation and chl-a <20 µm showed significant differences for tide, being higher at high tide, and at low tide for chl-a of <20 µm. The low content of dissolved inorganic nutrient salts and chl-a were indicative of an area still free of eutrophication. Anthropogenic changes in the environment have led to greater marine interference and consequently to a reduction of the productive capacity of the system.

Thermal stress events threaten coral populations by disrupting symbiosis between the coral animal and microalgal symbionts in its tissues. These symbionts are key players in the response of the coral holobiont to elevated temperature. However, little is known about the microalgal symbiont type in select corals in the north-western Philippines and how they contribute to the differential responses of coral species. Based on sequencing of major ITS2 bands from DGGE, the dominant algal symbiont in Acropora digitifera, A. millepora, A. tenuis and Favites colemani was identified to be closely related to ITS2 type C3u, Montipora digitata contained ITS2 type C15, and Seriatopora caliendrum hosted ITS2 types similar to C3-Gulf and D1. Thin branching corals, such as A. tenuis and S. caliendrum, exhibited the greatest reduction in photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) and symbiont density at elevated temperature, followed by M. digitata and A. millepora, to a lesser extent. A. digitifera and F. colemani were least affected by the temperature treatment. Reduction in Fv/Fm and symbiont density was more apparent in A. tenuis and A. millepora than in M. digitata and F. colemani, although these species all host ITS2 type C3u symbionts. These results suggest that the impact of elevated temperature is influenced by factors apart from symbiont type. This highlights the importance of further studies on the diversity of corals and their microalgal symbionts in the region to gain insights into their potential resilience to recurring thermal stress events.

The three-dimensional coral scaffolds formed by the skeletons of the cold-water corals Madrepora oculata and Lophelia pertusa represent an important deep-sea hard substratum and create an optimal shelter for a rich associated fauna in which the contribution of Porifera has still not been fully considered. The taxonomic analysis of sponges collected from two Sardinian canyons (Nora and Coda Cavallo, 256–408 m) and associated with the dead coral matrix resulted in 28 species, including new records for the Mediterranean Sea, Italian fauna or Central Tyrrhenian Sea. In addition, for many species this is the first finding associated with the coral framework or the first documentation of the in situ morphology. The taxonomic comparison with sponge assemblages associated with coral frameworks from Santa Maria di Leuca, Strait of Sicily and Bari Canyon, gave the opportunity to evaluate the similarities among geographically separated banks. Overall, the percentage of exclusive species (recorded only in one site), is very high (81%) and only one species is shared by all four sites, suggesting a low connectivity among the sponge communities. The percentage of shared species is higher for the Maltese community, supporting the role of the Sicily Channel as a crossroads between the communities of the eastern and western Mediterranean basins. Here, 55% of the sponges associated to the coral framework are also reported in shallow-water coralligenous assemblages, indicating a high bathymetric connectivity as well as an ecological plasticity allowing these species to occupy a wide range of small, dark refuges.

Based on some coincident morphological characters and distribution, it was believed for a long time that Mica micula was the post-larval stage of a species of Bargmannia, a genus having a very wide geographic distribution. Recent studies, however, have shown that it is much more likely to be the post-larval form of the physonect Pyrostephos vanhoeffeni, which is very common in both Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters. Until now, molecular evidence to support this theory has been lacking. In the present study 34 nectophores of P. vanhoeffeni and four colonies of M. micula collected from three areas in the Southern Ocean were analysed for the 16S rRNA gene. Five haplotypes were identified, which formed two clearly distinct lineages. Three haplotypes were found exclusively in Admiralty Bay and were shared between individuals of both studied taxa, confirming that M. micula is indeed the post-larval stage of P. vanhoeffeni. Two additional haplotypes were found in one open ocean locality and in Admiralty Bay.

Although Aplysia depilans is a widely known European species and the type species of the genus, the distinctions that separate it from other related congeners are not entirely clear. Aimed at improving this scenario, a detailed morphological description is performed herein, showing some unprecedented and useful features. Based on our anatomical examination, this study has found the opaline gland to be dark in colour, as well as a metapodium with an indistinctly delimited pedal sucker, a crop divided into two equal chambers of similar volume by a circular muscle, gizzard plates arranged in groups, and a peculiar penial sheath structure. All of these characters appear to be significantly different from the other species, based on a review of the anatomical literature and several examined samples of ongoing studies. Our central objective is to provide new data on the anatomy of the type species of Aplysiidae; and, based on topological evidence, to propose a new terminology and possible homologies to some important characters, such as parapodia lobation, cephalic tentacles, crop, penial sheath, gizzard plates and visceral ganglion in anaspideans, for future phylogenetic analysis. The subgenus Subaplysia Medina, Collins & Walsh, 2005 is regarded as a junior synonym of subgenus Aplysia Linnaeus, 1767.

This study was conducted in February, April and June 2009 at three stations in the southern Adriatic. Occurrence of the dinoflagellate Noctiluca scintillans and tunicates Salpa fusiformis and Salpa maxima in high abundances for the oligotrophic open sea, indicates the importance of physical forcing (vertical mixing) and inflow of nutrient-enriched Atlantic water, due to the Bimodal Oscillating System (BiOS) mechanism, into the Adriatic Sea thus creating an environment favourable for their rapid increase. This is the first time a bloom of N. scintillans has been recorded in the open southern Adriatic (OSA). High abundance of Noctiluca and salp populations in the OSA was characterized by low abundance of phytoplankton and other zooplankton, with obvious trophic implications (reduction of food availability to crustacean primary consumers). Moreover, during the S. maxima bloom in June 2009, calanoid copepods and appendicularians were almost completely absent (<1 ind. m−3).

Biofilm-dwelling protozoa are a primary component of microbiota and play important roles in the functioning of microbial food webs such as the mediation of carbon and energy flux from plankton to benthos in marine ecosystems. To demonstrate the vertical pattern of the protozoan communities, a 1-month baseline survey was carried out in coastal waters of the Yellow Sea, northern China. A total of 40 samples were collected using glass slides as artificial substrates at four depths: 1, 2, 3.5 and 5 m. A total of 50 species were identified, comprising seven dominant and eight commonly distributed species. Species richness and individual species abundances showed a clear decreasing trend down the water column from 1 to 5 m, although the former peaked at a depth of 2 m. Multivariate approaches revealed that protozoan community structure differed significantly among the four depths, except for those at 2 and 3.5 m. Maximum values of species richness, diversity and evenness generally decreased with depth although they peaked at either 2 or 3.5 m. These results suggest that water depth may significantly shape the community patterns of biofilm-dwelling protozoa in marine ecosystems.

The island of Bonaire is a long-established Marine Protected Area (MPA), the reefs of which were extensively mapped in the early 1980s. Satellite remote sensing techniques were used to construct reef maps for 2008–2009. Metrics describing the spatial structure of coral habitat at the landscape scale – including coral cover, fragmentation, patch size and connectivity between patches – were calculated and compared between these two time periods. Changes were evaluated in and out of the MPAs and in areas exposed and sheltered from storm damage. Overall, coral cover has declined during the past three decades, being replaced by sand, but the decline has not been as drastic as elsewhere in the Caribbean. Fragmentation of the reef habitat has occurred, resulting in smaller and more disparate patches, but these changes were not associated with exposure along the coastline. However, total coral cover was maintained in sheltered areas, whereas it declined along exposed shorelines. Human protection of reefs by marine reserves had variable effects on coral cover and fragmentation. One of two no-diving marine reserves showed increases in coral cover accompanied by decreases in the number of patches of coral and an increase in the size of individual patches over the time period, while the second reserve exhibited the opposite trend. Advances in satellite remote sensing techniques allow for a more rapid assessment of changes in reefs at the landscape level, which can be used to identify spatial changes in the reef environment, including areas of coral decline.

Climate change and heavy anthropic pressures are giving rise to important modifications in the rocky benthic communities of the Mediterranean Sea. In particular, sponge assemblages have been deeply affected due to the susceptibility of some species to dramatic phenomena such as mass mortalities or widespread variations in the abundance of other species. For this reason, long-term biodiversity monitoring of the sponge assemblages is important for understanding the direction of changes over time. We studied the sponge fauna living off Tricase Porto (Otranto Strait) and compared its composition with the results of a study conducted in the same area 50 years ago. The comparison indicated that the sponge diversity of this area has strongly increased in the last 50 years and a large number of the sponges recorded in the old survey are still present in the recent community. This evidence matches with other results obtained from different localities of the Mediterranean Sea indicating an increase of sponge diversity, possibly due to the present water warming. The description of two new Demosponge species, Diplastrella boeroi sp. nov. and Spirastrella angulata sp. nov., is also provided.