Decreases in cognitive function related to increases in oxidative stress and inflammation occur with ageing. Acknowledging the free radical-quenching activity and anti-inflammatory action of the carotenoid lycopene, the aim of the present review was to assess if there is evidence for a protective relationship between lycopene and maintained cognitive function or between lycopene and development or progression of dementia. A systematic literature search identified five cross-sectional and five longitudinal studies examining these outcomes in relation to circulating or dietary lycopene. Among four studies evaluating relationships between lycopene and maintained cognition, three reported significant positive relationships. Neither of the two studies reporting on relationship between lycopene and development of dementia reported significant results. Of four studies investigating circulating lycopene and pre-existing dementia, only one reported significant associations between lower circulating lycopene and higher rates of Alzheimer's disease mortality. Acknowledging heterogeneity among studies, there is insufficient evidence and a paucity of data to draw firm conclusions or tease apart direct effects of lycopene. Nevertheless, as low circulating lycopene is a predictor of all-cause mortality, further investigation into its relationship with cognitive longevity and dementia-related mortality is warranted.

Objectives: An important question in longitudinal research is whether the individuals who discontinue participation differ in their level of, or their change in, cognitive functioning relative to individuals who return for subsequent occasions. Methods: Performance in five cognitive domains was examined in nearly 5000 participants between 18 and 85 years of age who completed between one and five longitudinal occasions. Results: Little or no differences in cognitive performance were apparent between young adults who did or did not return for subsequent longitudinal occasions. However, among adults above about 45 years of age, returning participants had higher levels of cognitive performance, but approximately similar magnitude of longitudinal change, as participants completing fewer occasions. Conclusions: These results suggest that generalizability of longitudinal comparisons may be restricted to individuals with relatively high levels of cognitive functioning, but that rates of cognitive change are nearly comparable for individuals completing different numbers of longitudinal occasions.

Emotions play an important role in cognition and have a significant and all too often neglected influence on (international) law-making processes. Fear, in particular, can be a driver of reasoning and decision-making. Fear of terrorism / immigrants / health threats / food contamination / environmental hazards – to give a few notable examples – influences the perception of risks associated with these issues and consequently impacts international policy- and law-making. International law rules and doctrines are often adopted – if not overtly justified – on the basis of fear and other emotions. This article aims to explore how fear – as both an individual and collective emotion – may affect decision-making processes, be determinative of normative outcomes, and shape security policies at the domestic and international levels. This approach deviates from traditional rationalist understandings of law and emphasizes the role of emotions in apprehending the nature and functioning of legal processes. Hopefully, this exploration will open up interesting avenues for further research on the role of emotions in international legal processes.

Objectives: Guidelines on return-to-driving after traumatic brain injury (TBI) are scarce. Since driving requires the coordination of multiple cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor functions, neuropsychological testing may offer an estimate of driving ability. To examine this, a meta-analysis of the relationship between neuropsychological testing and driving ability after TBI was performed. Methods: Hedge’s g and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using a random effects model. Analyses were performed on cognitive domains and individual tests. Meta-regressions examined the influence of study design, demographic, and clinical factors on effect sizes. Results: Eleven studies were included in the meta-analysis. Executive functions had the largest effect size (g = 0.60 [0.39–0.80]), followed by verbal memory (g = 0.49 [0.27–0.71]), processing speed/attention (g = 0.48 [0.29–0.67]), and visual memory (g = 0.43 [0.14–0.71]). Of the individual tests, Useful Field of Vision (UFOV) divided attention (g = 1.12 [0.52–1.72]), Trail Making Test B (g = 0.75 [0.42–1.08]), and UFOV selective attention (g = 0.67 [0.22–1.12]) had the largest effects. The effect sizes for Choice Reaction Time test and Trail Making Test A were g = 0.63 (0.09–1.16) and g = 0.58 (0.10–1.06), respectively. Years post injury (β = 0.11 [0.02–0.21] and age (β = 0.05 [0.009–0.09]) emerged as significant predictors of effect sizes (both p < .05). Conclusions: These results provide preliminary evidence of associations between neuropsychological test performance and driving ability after moderate to severe TBI and highlight moderating effects of demographic and clinical factors.

Objective: Radiation therapy (RT) improves rates of survival of patients with childhood brain tumors but increases deficits in cognition and independent living skills. Previous literature has studied difficulties in basic cognitive processes, but few explore impairment in higher-order skills such as adaptive functioning. Some studies identify females as at risk for cognitive deficits due to RT, but few investigate sex differences in adaptive functioning. It was hypothesized that females would exhibit poorer long-term independent living skills and core cognitive skills relative to males following RT. Methods: Forty-five adult survivors of posterior fossa childhood brain tumors (24 females) completed the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI-II), Wechsler Memory Scale, Third Edition (WMS-III) Digit Span Forward (DSF) and Backward (DSB), and Oral Symbol Digit Modalities Test (OSDMT). Informants completed the Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised (SIB-R). Results: DSF and OSDMT were positively correlated with all five SIB-R domains, full-scale IQ (FSIQ) was positively correlated with four SIB-R domains, and DSB was positively correlated with three SIB-R domains. There was an interaction between sex and RT for OSDMT and community living skills with trend level interactions for personal living skills and broad independent living skills, where females without RT had higher scores than females with RT. Conclusions: Female survivors were more affected by RT than males across the community living skills domain of adaptive functioning as well as processing speed. Processing speed deficits may have a cascading impact on daily living skills. Future studies should investigate how clinical and biological factors may contribute to personalized treatment plans between sexes. (JINS, 2019, xx, 000–000).

Objective: Cognitive reserve (CR) capacity can be viewed as the maximum processing potential of neural systems that support adaptive cognitive performance in age-related cognitive decline. CR is a complex construct that can only be measured indirectly. Proxy measures (e.g., psychosocial/lifestyle variables) are traditionally used to reflect CR. However, strong relationships have been observed between these measures and cognitive functions (e.g., executive function [EF], processing resources [PR], fluid/crystallized abilities); therefore, the organizational structure of indicators implicated in CR remains unclear. The objective of this study was to test a hypothetical, theoretical model of CR capacity that includes both traditional CR proxy indicators and measures of cognitive function [Satz et al. (2011). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(1), 121–130], which remain, as yet, untested. Method: Construct validity of the model was investigated in healthy older adults through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (EFA and CFA) using data from the Maastricht Ageing Study (MAAS). A secondary CFA was conducted to validate the model using data from the Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA). Results: EFA and CFA in MAAS established a two-factor model comprising EF/PR and cumulative cognitive enrichment (CCE), which was further validated in a secondary analysis in TILDA. Convergent and discriminant validity was supported in MAAS (range of R2 = .228–.635; factor correlation confidence interval (CI) = .622, .740) and TILDA (range of R2 = .172–.899; factor correlation CI = .559, .624). Conclusions: A dual model of CR elucidated the relationships between hypothesized indicators of CR capacity and revealed a two-factor structure suggesting that both control (EF/PR) and representational processes (CCE) are involved in CR capacity.

Objectives: Individuals aged 90 or older (oldest-old), the fastest growing segment of the population, are at increased risk of developing cognitive impairment compared with younger old. Neuropsychological evaluation of the oldest-old is important yet challenging in part because of the scarcity of test norms for this group. We provide neuropsychological test norms for cognitively intact oldest-old. Methods: Test norms were derived from 403 cognitively intact participants of The 90+ Study, an ongoing study of aging and dementia in the oldest-old. Cognitive status of intact oldest-old was determined at baseline using cross-sectional approach. Individuals with cognitive impairment no dementia or dementia (according to DSM-IV criteria) were excluded. Participants ranged in age from 90 to 102 years (mean=94). The neuropsychological battery included 11 tests (Mini-Mental Status Examination, Modified Mini-Mental State Examination, Boston Naming Test – Short Form, Letter Fluency Test, Animal Fluency Test, California Verbal Learning Test-II Short Form, Trail Making Tests A/B/C, Digit Span Forward and Backwards Test, Clock Drawing Test, CERAD Construction Subtests), and the Geriatric Depression Scale. Results: Data show significantly lower scores with increasing age on most tests. Education level, sex, and symptoms of depression were associated with performance on several tests after accounting for age. Conclusions: Provided test norms will help to distinguish cognitively intact oldest-old from those with cognitive impairment. (JINS, 2019, 25, 530–545)

Objective: White matter (WM) microstructural changes are increasingly recognized as a mechanism of age-related cognitive differences. This study examined the associations between patterns of WM microstructure and cognitive performance on the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) Brain Health Assessment (BHA) subtests of memory (Favorites), executive functions and speed (Match), and visuospatial skills (Line Orientation) within a sample of older adults. Method: Fractional anisotropy (FA) in WM tracts and BHA performance were examined in 84 older adults diagnosed as neurologically healthy (47), with mild cognitive impairment (19), or with dementia (18). The relationships between FA and subtest performances were evaluated using regression analyses. We then explored whether regional WM predicted performance after accounting for variance explained by global FA. Results: Memory performance was associated with FA of the fornix and the superior cerebellar peduncle; and executive functions and speed, with the body of the corpus callosum. The fornix–memory association and the corpus callosum–executive association remained significant after accounting for global FA. Neither tract-based nor global FA was associated with visuospatial performance. Conclusions: Memory and executive functions are associated with different patterns of WM diffusivity. Findings add insight into WM alterations underlying age- and disease-related cognitive decline.

Evidence on long-term influences of maternal vitamin B12 deficiency or concentrations on infant cognition is limited. We examined associations between maternal plasma vitamin B12 and cognitive development in 24-month-old infants. Maternal plasma vitamin B12 concentrations were measured at 26–28 weeks’ gestation; infant cognitive development was assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III at 24 months, for 443 mother–infant pairs from the Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes cohort. Linear regressions adjusted for key confounders examined associations of maternal vitamin B12 with cognitive, receptive and expressive language, fine and gross motor subscales. Co-occurrence of maternal vitamin B12 with folate or vitamin B6 insufficiencies on child’s cognition was explored. Average maternal plasma vitamin B12 concentrations was 220·5 ± 80·5 pmol/l; 15 % and 41 % of mothers were vitamin B12 deficient (<148 pmol/l) and insufficient (148–220·9 pmol/l), respectively. Infants of mothers with vitamin B12 deficiency had 0·42 (95 % CI −0·70, −0·14) sd lower cognitive scores, compared with infants of mothers with sufficient vitamin B12. Co-occurrence of maternal vitamins B12 and B6 insufficiencies was associated with 0·37 (95 % CI −0·69, −0·06) sd lower cognitive scores in infants compared with infants of mothers sufficient in both vitamins. No significant associations were observed with other subscales. Study findings suggest the possible need to ensure adequate vitamin B12 during pregnancy. The impact of co-occurrence of maternal B-vitamins insufficiencies on early cognitive development warrants further investigation.

Objectives: Traumatic brain injury can result in cognitive impairments in children. The objective of this retrospective study was to determine to what extent such outcomes are moderated by cognitive reserve, as indexed by parental education. Methods: Sixty 6- to 16-year-old children completed the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (WISC–V) within 30–360 days after having sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Their Full-Scale IQ and factor index scores were compared to those of demographically matched controls. In addition, regression analysis was used to investigate in the TBI group the influence of injury severity in addition to parental education on WISC–V factor index scores. Results: Cognitive reserve moderated the effect of TBI on WISC–V Full Scale IQ, Verbal Comprehension, and Visual Spatial. In the TBI group, it also had a protective effect with regard to performance on the Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, and Fluid Reasoning indices. At the same time, greater injury severity was predictive of lower Visual Spatial and Processing Speed index scores in the TBI group. Conclusions: Cognitive reserve as reflected in parental education has a moderating effect with regard to children’s performance on the WISC–V after TBI, such that higher cognitive reserve is associated with greater preservation of acquired word knowledge and understanding of visual relationships. Measures that emphasize speed of processing remain affected by severity of TBI, even after accounting for the protective effect associated with cognitive reserve. (JINS, 2019, 25, 355–361)