Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-wg55d Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-01T09:32:21.178Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 13 - Subarachnoid hemorrhage, aneurysms, and vascular malformations

from Part II - Stroke syndromes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 August 2016

Louis R. Caplan
Affiliation:
Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Massachusetts
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Caplan's Stroke
A Clinical Approach
, pp. 439 - 476
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2016

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Rinkel, GJE, Djibuti, M, Algra, A, van Gijn, J: Prevalence and risk of rupture of intracranial aneurysms. A systematic review. Stroke 1998;29:251256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
International Study of Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysms Investigators: Unruptured intracranial aneurysms – risk of rupture and risks of surgical intervention. N Engl J Med 1998;339:17251733.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayberg, MR, Batjer, HH, Dacey, R, et al: Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Heart Association. Stroke 1994;25:23152328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weir, B: Aneurysms Affecting the Central Nervous System. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1987.Google Scholar
Kaibara, T, Heros, RC: Aneurysms. In Caplan, LR (ed): Uncommon Causes of Stroke, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp 171179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkarinen, S: Incidence, etiology, and prognosis of primary subarachnoid hemorrhage: A study based on 589 cases diagnosed in a defined urban population during a defined period. Acta Neurol Scand 1967;43(suppl 29):1128.Google Scholar
Phillips, LH, Whisnant, JP, O’Fallan, W, et al: The unchanging pattern of subarachnoid hemorrhage in a community. Neurology 1980;30:10341040.Google Scholar
Ingall, TJ, Whisnant, JP, Wiebers, DO, O’Fallon, WM: Has there been a decline in subarachnoid hemorrhage mortality? Stroke 1989;20:718724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The UCAS Japan Investigators. The natural course of unruptured cerebral aneurysms in a Japanese cohort. N Engl J Med 2012;366:24742482.Google Scholar
Wiebers, DO, Whisnant, JP, Huston, J III, et al: Unruptured intracranial aneurysms: natural history, clinical outcome, and risks of surgical and endovascular treatment. Lancet 2003;362:103110.Google Scholar
Korja, M, Lehto, H, Juvela, S: Lifelong rupture risk of intracranial aneurysms depends on risk factors: a prospective Finnish Cohort Study. Stroke 2014;45:19581963.Google Scholar
Locksley, HB: Report of the Cooperative Study of Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Sec V, part I: Natural history of subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial aneurysms, and arteriovenous malformation-based on 6,368 cases in the cooperative study. J Neurosurg 1966;25:219239.Google Scholar
Locksley, HB: Report of the Cooperative Study of Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Sec V, part II: Natural history of subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial aneurysms, and arteriovenous malformation. J Neurosurg 1966;25:321368.Google Scholar
Heros, RC, Kistler, JP: Intracranial arterial aneurysms – an update. Stroke 1983;14:628631.Google Scholar
Winn, WR, Richardson, AE, Jane, JA: The long-term prognosis in untreated cerebral aneurysms: I. The incidence of late hemorrhage in cerebral aneurysms – a ten-year evaluation of 364 patients. Ann Neurol 1977;1:358370.Google Scholar
Kassell, NF, Kongable, GL, Torner, JC, et al: Delay in referral of patients with ruptured aneurysms to neurosurgical attention. Stroke 1985;16:587590.Google Scholar
Bor, ASE, Velthuis, BK, Majoie, CB, Rinkel, GJE: Configuration of intracranial arteries and development of aneurysms. Neurology 2008;70:700705.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, LR: Subarachnoid hemorrhage, aneurysms, and vascular malformations. In Caplan, LR (ed): Posterior Circulation Disease: Clinical Findings, Diagnosis, and Management. Boston: Blackwell, 1996, pp 633685.Google Scholar
Suzuki, J, Onuma, T, Yoshimoto, T: Results of early operations on cerebral aneurysms. Surg Neurol 1979;11:407412.Google Scholar
Bromberg, JE, Rinkel, GJ, Algra, A, et al: Familial subarachnoid hemorrhage: Distinctive features and patterns of inheritance. Ann Neurol 1995;38:929934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raaymakers, TW, Rinkel, GJ, Ramos, LM: Initial and follow-up screening for aneurysms in families with familial subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1998;51:11251130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schievink, WI, Schaid, DJ, Rogers, HM, et al: On the inheritance of intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 1994;25:20282037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE, Wijmenga, C: Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Lancet Neurology 2005;4:179189.Google Scholar
Ruigrok, YM, Seitz, U, Wolterink, S, et al: Association of polymorphisms and pairwise haplotypes in the elastin gene in Dutch patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage from non-familial aneurysms. Stroke 2004;35:20642068.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE: Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2008;39:10491055.Google Scholar
Nahed, BV, Bydon, M, Ozturk, AK, et al: Genetics of intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurgery 2007;60:213225.Google Scholar
Ruigrok, YM, Rinkel, GJE, Wijmenga, C: The Versican gene and the risk of intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2006;37:23722374.Google Scholar
Ruigrok, YM, Wijmenga, C, Rinkel, GJE, et al: Genomewide linkage in a large Dutch family with intracranial aneurysms. Stroke 2008;39:10961102.Google Scholar
Van den Berg, JSP, Limburg, M, Pais, G, et al: Some patients with intracranial aneurysms have a reduced type III/type I collagen ratio. Neurology 1997;49:15461551.Google Scholar
Ferguson, GG: Physical factors in the initiation, growth, and rupture of human intracranial saccular aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1972;37:666677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adams, HP, Kassell, N, Torner, JC, et al: Early management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1981;54:141145.Google Scholar
Ferguson, GG, Peerless, SJ, Drake, CG: Natural history of intracranial aneurysms. N Engl J Med 1981;305:99.Google ScholarPubMed
Caplan, LR: Should intracranial aneurysms be treated before they rupture? N Engl J Med 1998; 339:17741775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiebers, DO, Whisnant, JP, O’Fallon, WM: The natural history of unruptured intracranial aneurysms. N Engl J Med 1981;304:696698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drake, CG: Giant intracranial aneurysm: Experience with surgical treatment in 174 patients. In Carmel, PW (ed): Clinical Neurosurgery. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1979, pp 1295.Google Scholar
Kassell, N, Drake, CG: Review of the management of saccular aneurysms. In Barnett, HJM (ed): Neurological Clinics, vol 1. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1983, pp 7386.Google Scholar
Adams, HP, Jergenson, DD, Kassell, NF, Sahs, AL: Pitfalls in the recognition of subarachnoid hemorrhage. JAMA 1980;244:794796.Google Scholar
Edlow, JA, Caplan, LR: Avoiding pitfalls in the diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2000;342:2936.Google Scholar
Gorelick, PB, Hier, DB, Caplan, LR, Langenberg, P: Headache in acute cerebrovascular disease. Neurology 1986;36:14451450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauerberg, J, Andersen, BB, Eskesen, V, et al: Importance of the recognition of a warning leak as a sign of a ruptured intracranial aneurysm. Acta Neurol Scand 1971;83:6164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostergaard, JR: Warning leak in subarachnoid haemorrhage. BMJ 1990;301:190191.Google Scholar
Drake, CG: The treatment of aneurysms of the posterior circulation. In Carmel, PW (ed): Clinical Neurosurgery. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1979, pp 96144.Google Scholar
Stewart, RM, Samsom, D, Diehl, J, et al: Unruptured cerebral aneurysms presenting as recurrent transient neurological deficits. Neurology 1980;30:4751.Google Scholar
Fisher, M, Davidson, RI, Marcus, EM: Transient focal cerebral ischemia as a presenting manifestation of unruptured cerebral aneurysms. Ann Neurol 1980;8:367372.Google Scholar
Sutherland, GR, King, ME, Peerless, SJ, et al: Platelet interaction within giant intracranial aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1982;56:5361.Google Scholar
Weisberg, LA: Ruptured aneurysms of anterior cerebral or anterior communicating arteries. Neurology 1985;35:15621566.Google Scholar
Tokuda, Y, Inagawa, T, Katoh, Y, Kumano, K, Ohbayashi, N, Yoshioka, H: Intracerebral hematoma in patients with ruptured cerebral aneurysms. Surg Neurol 1995;43:272277.Google Scholar
Hunt, WE, Hess, RM: Surgical risk as related to time of intervention in the repair of intracranial aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1968;28:1420.Google Scholar
Drake, CG, Hunt, WE, Sano, K, et al. Report of World Federation of Neurological Surgeons Committee on a Universal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Grading Scale. J Neurosurg 1988;68:985986.Google Scholar
van Heuven, AW, Dorhout Mees, SM, Algra, A, Rinkel, GJ: Validation of a prognostic subarachnoid hemorrhage grading scale derived directly from the Glasgow Coma Scale. Stroke 2008;39:13471348.Google Scholar
Teasdale, G, Jennett, B: Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 1974;2:8184.Google Scholar
Teasdale, G, Jennett, B: Assessment and prognosis of coma after head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1976;34:4555.Google Scholar
Wijdicks, EFM: Clinical scales for comatose patients: The Glasgow Coma Scale in historical context and the new Four Score. Rev Neurol Dis 2006;3:109117.Google Scholar
Weisberg, L: Computed tomography in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1979;29:802808.Google Scholar
Liliequist, B, Lindquist, M: Computer tomography in the evaluation of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockh) 1980;21:327331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van der Jagt, M, Hasan, D, Bijvoet, HWC, et al: Validity of prediction of the site of ruptured intracranial aneurysm with CT. Neurology 1999;52:3439.Google Scholar
Van Gijn, J, van Dongen, KJ, Vermeulan, M, et al: Perimesencephalic hemorrhage: A nonaneurysmal and benign form of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1985;35:483487.Google Scholar
Rinkel, GJ, Wijdicks, E, Vermeulen, M, et al: The clinical course of perimesencephalic nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Ann Neurol 1991;29:463468.Google Scholar
Schievink, WI, Wijdicks, EFM: Pretruncal subarachnoid hemorrhage: An anatomically correct description of the perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1997;28:2572.Google Scholar
Van Gijn, J, Rinkel, JE: Subarachnoid hemorrhage syndromes. In Caplan, LR, van Gijn, J (eds), Stroke Syndromes, 3rd ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp 534541.Google Scholar
Kershenovich, A, Rappaport, ZH, Maimon, S: Brain computed tomography angiographic scans as the sole diagnostic examination for excluding aneurysms in patients with perimesencephalic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2006;59:798801.Google Scholar
Patel, KC, Finelli, PF: Non-aneurysmal convexity subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006;4:229233.Google Scholar
Spitzer, C, Mull, M, Rohde, V, Kosinski, CM: Non-traumatic cortical subarachnoid haemorrhage: Diagnostic work-up and aetiological background. Neuroradiology 2005;47:525531.Google Scholar
Kumar, S, Goddeau, RP, Selim, MH, et al: Atraumatic convexal subarachnoid hemorrhage: Clinical presentation, imaging patterns, and etiologies. Neurology 2010;74:893899.Google Scholar
Nakajima, M, Inatomi, Y, Yonehara, T, Hirano, T, Ando, Y: Nontraumatic convexal subarachnoid hemorrhage concomitant with acute ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2014;23:15641570.Google Scholar
Fisher, CM, Kistler, JP, Davis, JM: Relation of cerebral vasospasm to subarachnoid hemorrhage visualized by computed tomographic scanning. Neurosurgery 1980;6:19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kistler, JP, Crowell, RM, Davis, KR, et al: The relation of cerebral vasospasm to the extent and location of subarachnoid blood visualized by CT scan: A prospective study. Neurology 1983;33:424437.Google Scholar
Hijdra, A, van Gijn, J, Nagelkerke, N, et al: Prediction of delayed cerebral ischemia, rebleeding, and outcome after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1988;19:12501256.Google Scholar
Brouwers, PJ, Dippel, DW, Vermeulen, M, et al: Amount of blood on computed tomography as an independent predictor after aneurysm rupture. Stroke 1993;24:809814.Google Scholar
Sherlock, M, Agha, A, Thompson, CJ: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2006;354:17551757.Google Scholar
Alberico, RA, Patel, M, Casey, S, et al: Evaluation of the circle of Willis with three-dimensional CT angiography in patients with suspected intracranial aneurysms. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:15711578.Google Scholar
Jayaraman, MV, Mayo-Smith, WW, Tung, GA, et al: Detection of intracranial aneurysms: multi-detector row CT angiography compared with DSA. Radiology 2004;230:510518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoon, DY, Lim, KJ, Choi, CS, et al: Detection and characterization of intracranial aneurysms with 16-channel multidetector row CT angiography: A prospective comparison of volume-rendered images and digital subtraction angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2007;28:6067.Google Scholar
Ross, J, Masaryk, T, Modic, M, et al: Intracranial aneurysms: Evaluation by MR angiography. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990;11:449456.Google Scholar
Okahara, M, Kiyosue, H, Yamashita, M, et al: Diagnostic accuracy of magnetic resonance angiography for cerebral aneurysms in correlation with 3D-digital subtraction angiographic images: A study of 133 aneurysms. Stroke 2002;33:18031808.Google Scholar
Unlu, E, Cakir, B, Gocer, B, et al: The role of contrast-enhanced MR angiography in the assessment of recently ruptured intracranial aneurysms: A comparative study. Neuroradiology 2005;47:780791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caplan, LR, Flamm, ES, Mohr, JP, et al: Lumbar puncture and stroke. Stroke 1987;18:540A544A.Google Scholar
Edlow, JA: Diagnosis of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2005;2:99109.Google Scholar
Van Gign, J, Kerr, RS, Rinkel, GJE: Subarachnoid haemorrhage. Lancet 2007;369:306318.Google Scholar
Van der Meulen, JP: Cerebrospinal fluid xanthochromia: An objective index. Neurology 1966;16:170178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perry, JJ, Sivilotti, ML, Stiell, IG, et al: Should spectrophotometry be used to identify xanthochromia in the cerebrospinal fluid of alert patients suspected of having subarachnoid hemorrhage? Stroke 2006;37:24672472.Google Scholar
Hayward, RS: Subarachnoid hemorrhage of unknown etiology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:926931.Google Scholar
Rinkel, GJE, van Gijn, J, Wijdicks, EFM: Subarachnoid hemorrhage without detectable aneurysm: A review of the causes. Stroke 1993;24:14031409.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Brass, LM, DeWitt, LD, et al: Transcranial Doppler ultrasound: Present status. Neurology 1990;40:696700.Google Scholar
Sloan, MA, Alexandrov, AV, Tegeler, CH, et al: Assessment: Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography: Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment. Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2004;62:14681481.Google Scholar
Harders, AG, Gilsbach, JM: Time course of blood velocity changes related to vasospasm in the circle of Willis measured by transcranial Doppler ultrasound. J Neurosurg 1987;66:718728.Google Scholar
Sloan, MA, Haley, EC, Kassell, NF, et al: Sensitivity and specificity of transcranial Doppler ultrasonography in the diagnosis of vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1989;391:15141518.Google Scholar
Sekhar, L, Wechsler, L, Yonas, H, et al: Value of transcranial Doppler examination in the diagnosis of cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 1988;22:813821.Google Scholar
Davis, SM, Andrews, JT, Lichtenstein, M, et al: Correlations between cerebral arterial velocities, blood flow, and delayed ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1992;23:492497.Google Scholar
Davis, S, Andrews, J, Lichtenstein, M, et al: A single-photon emission computed tomography study of hyperperfusion after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1990;21:252259.Google Scholar
Chieregato, A, Sabia, G, Tanfani, A, et al: Xenon-CT and transcranial Doppler in poor-grade or complicated aneurysmatic subarachnoid hemorrhage patients undergoing aggressive management of intracranial hypertension. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:11431150.Google Scholar
Hillman, J, Sturnegk, P, Yonas, H, et al: Bedside monitoring of CBF with xenon-CT and a mobile scanner: A novel method in neurointensive care. Br J Neurosurg 2005;19:395401.Google Scholar
Rordorf, G, Koroshetz, WJ, Copen, WA, et al: Diffusion- and perfusion-weighted imaging in vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1999;30:599605.Google Scholar
Condette-Auliac, S, Bracard, S, Anxionnat, R, et al: Vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: Interest in diffusion-weighted MR imaging. Stroke 2001;32:18181824.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wijdicks, EFM, Schievink, W, Miller, GM: Pretruncal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Mayo Clin Proc 1998;73:745752.Google Scholar
Rinkel, GJ, Wijdicks, E, Vermeulen, M, et al: Outcome in perimesencephalic (nonaneurysmal) subarachnoid hemorrhage: A follow-up study in 37 patients. Neurology 1990;40:11301132.Google Scholar
Wijdicks, EFM, Schievink, WI: Perimesencephalic nonaneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: First hint of a cause? Neurology 1997;49:634636.Google Scholar
Stein, RW, Kase, CS, Hier, DB, et al: Caudate hemorrhage. Neurology 1984;34:15491554.Google Scholar
Hochberg, F, Fisher, CM, Roberson, G: Subarachnoid hemorrhage caused by rupture of a small superficial artery. Neurology 1974;24:309311.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, P, Chiu, M, ter Brugge, K, et al: Neurological manifestations of intracranial dural arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 1986;64:724730.Google Scholar
Chang, R, Friedman, DP: Isolated cortical venous thrombosis presenting as subarachnoid hemorrhage: A report of three cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:16761679.Google Scholar
Oppenheim, C, Domigo, V, Gauvrit, JY, et al: Subarachnoid hemorrhage as the initial presentation of dural sinus thrombosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005;26:614617.Google Scholar
Ohshima, T, Endo, T, Nukui, H, et al: Cerebral amyloid angiopathy as a cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1990;21:480483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, B, Burns, A: Subarachnoid hemorrhages in vasculitis. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;42:582585.Google Scholar
Fomin, S, Patel, S, Alcasid, N, et al: Recurrent subarachnoid hemorrhage in a 17 year old with Wegener granulomatosis. J Clin Rheumatol 2006;12:212213.Google Scholar
Broderick, JP, Brott, TG, Duldner, JE, et al: Initial and recurrent bleeding are the major causes of death following subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1994;25:13421347.Google Scholar
Suarez, JI, Tarr, RW, Selman, WR: Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2006;354:387396.Google Scholar
Bambidakis, NC, Selman, WR: Subarachnoid hemorrhage. In Suarez, JL (ed): Critical Care Neurology and Neurosurgery. Towata, NJ: Humana Press, 2004, pp 365377.Google Scholar
Clower, BR, Smith, RR, Haining, JL, Lockard, J: Constrictive endarteropathy following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1981;12:501508.Google Scholar
Smith, RR, Clower, BR, Grotendorst, GM, et al: Arterial wall changes in early human vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1985;16:171176.Google Scholar
Yamamoto, Y, Smith, RR, Bernanke, DH: Accelerated nonmuscle contraction after subarachnoid hemorrhage: Culture and characterization of myofibroblasts from human cerebral arteries in vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1992;30:337345.Google Scholar
Macdonald, RL, Weir, BKA: A review of hemoglobin and the pathogenesis of cerebral vasospasm. Stroke 1991;22:971982.Google Scholar
Macdonald, RL: Cerebral Vasospasm. In Welch, KMA, Caplan, LR, Reis, DJ, et al. (eds): Primer on Cerebrovascular Diseases. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997, pp 490497.Google Scholar
Hughes, JT, Schianchi, PM: Cerebral artery spasm: A histological study at necropsy of the blood vessels in cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1978;48:515525.Google Scholar
Conway, LW, McDonald, LW: Structural changes of the intradural arteries following subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1972;37:715723.Google Scholar
Wellum, GR, Peterson, JW, Zervas, NT: The relevance of in vivo smooth muscle experiments to cerebral vasospasm. Stroke 1985;16:573581.Google Scholar
Kassell, NF, Sasaki, T, Colohan, AR, Nazar, G: Cerebral vasospasm following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1985;16:562572.Google Scholar
Kwak, R, Niizuma, H, Ohi, J, et al: Angiography study of cerebral vasospasm following rupture of intracranial aneurysms: I. Time of the appearance. Surg Neurol 1979;11:257262.Google Scholar
Weir, B, Grace, M, Hansen, J, et al: Time course of vasospasm in man. J Neurosurg 1978;48:173178.Google Scholar
Heros, RC, Zervas, NT, Varsos, V: Cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: An update. Ann Neurol 1983;14:599608.Google Scholar
Chaudhary, SR, Ko, N, Dillon, W, et al: Prospective evaluation of multidetector-row CT angiography for the diagnosis of vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage: A comparison with digital subtraction angiography. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008;25:144150.Google Scholar
Pham, M, Johnson, A, Bartsch, AJ, et al: CT perfusion predicts secondary cerebral infarction after aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 2007;69:762765.Google Scholar
Sviri, GE, Feinsod, M, Soustiel, JF: Brain natriuretic peptide and cerebral vasospasm in subarachnoid hemorrhage: Clinical and TCD correlations. Stroke 2000;31:118122.Google Scholar
Hop, JW, Rinkel, GJE, Algra, A, van Gijn, J: Initial loss of consciousness and risk of delayed cerebral ischemia after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1999;30:22682271.Google Scholar
Lanterna, LA, Ruigrok, Y, Alexander, S, et al: Meta-analysis of APOE genotype and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 2007;69:766775.Google Scholar
Mizukami, M, Kawase, T, Usami, T, et al: Prevention of vasospasm by early operation with removal of subarachnoid blood. Neurosurgery 1982;10:301307.Google Scholar
Taneda, M: Effect of early operation for ruptured aneurysm in prevention of delayed ischemic symptoms. J Neurosurg 1982;5:622628.Google Scholar
Findlay, JM, Kassell, NF, Weir, BKA, et al: A randomized trial of intraoperative, intracisternal tissue plasminogen activator for prevention of vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1995;37:168178.Google Scholar
Sasaki, T, Kodama, N, Kawakami, M, et al: Urokinase cisternal irrigation therapy of symptomatic vasospasm after aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2000;31:12561262.Google Scholar
Barth, M, Capelle, H-H, Weidauer, S, et al: Effect of nicardipine prolonged-release implants on cerebral vasospasm and clinical outcome after severe aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A prospective randomized double-blind phase II study. Stroke 2007;38:330336.Google Scholar
Macdonald, RL: Cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurg Quarterly 1995;5:7397.Google Scholar
Kassell, NF, Peerless, SJ, Durward, QJ, et al: Treatment of ischemic deficits from vasospasm with hypervolemia and induced arterial hypertension. Neurosurgery 1982;11:337343.Google Scholar
Solomon, RA, Fink, ME, Lennihan, L: Prophylactic volume expansion therapy for the prevention of delayed cerebral ischemia after early aneurysm surgery. Arch Neurol 1988;45:325332.Google Scholar
Solomon, RA, Post, KD, McMurty, JG: Depression of circulating blood volume in patients after subarachnoid hemorrhage: Implications for the management of symptomatic vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1984;15:354361.Google Scholar
Wood, JH, Simeone, FA, Kron, RE, et al: Rheological aspects of experimental hypervolemic hemodilation with low molecular weight dextran. Neurosurgery 1982;11:739753.Google Scholar
Lennihan, L, Mayer, SA, Fink, ME, et al. Effect of hypervolemic therapy on cerebral blood flow after subarachnoid hemorrhage: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2000;31:383391.Google Scholar
Dankbaar, JW, Slooter, AJC, Rinkel, GJE, van der Schaaf, IC: Effect of different components of triple-H therapy on cerebral perfusion in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage: a systematic review. Critical Care 2010;14:R23.Google Scholar
Naidech, AM, Drescher, J, Ault, ML, Shaibani, A, Batjer, HH, Alberts, MJ: Higher hemoglobin is associated with less cerebral infarction, poor outcome, and death after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2006;59:775779.Google Scholar
Kramer, AH, Gurka, MJ, Nathan, B, Dumont, AS, Kassell, NF, Bleck, TP: Complications associated with anemia and blood transfusion in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2008;36:20702075.Google Scholar
Naidech, AM, Jovanovic, B, Wartenberg, KE, et al: Higher hemoglobin is associated with improved outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2007;35:23832389.Google Scholar
Dhar, R, Zazulia, AR, Videen, TO, et al. Red blood cell transfusion increases cerebral oxygen delivery in anemic patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2009;40:30393044.Google Scholar
Connolly, ES, Rabinstein, AA, Carhuapoma, JR, et al. on behalf of the American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and Council on Clinical Cardiology: Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A Guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2012;43:17111737.Google Scholar
Pickard, JD, Murray, GD, Illingworth, R, et al: Effect of oral nimodipine in cerebral infarction and outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage: British Aneurysm Nimodipine trial. BMJ 1981;298:636642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, GS: Cerebral arterial spasm: A controlled trial of nimodipine in subarachnoid hemorrhage patients – the Nimodipine Cerebral Arterial Spasm Study Group. Stroke 1983;14:122.Google Scholar
Feigin, VL, Rinkel, GJE, Algra, A, et al: Calcium antagonists in patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A systematic review. Neurology 1998;50:876883.Google Scholar
Fraticelli, AT, Cholley, BP, Losser, M-R, et al: Milrinone for the treatment of cerebral vasospasm after aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2008;39:893898.Google Scholar
Higashida, RT, Halbach, VV, Cahan, LD, et al: Transluminal angioplasty for treatment of intracranial arterial vasospasm. J Neurosurg 1989;71:648653.Google Scholar
Hoh, BL, Ogilvy, CS: Endovascular treatment of cerebral vasospasm: Transluminal balloon angioplasty, intra-arterial papaverine, and intra-arterial nicardipine. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2005;16:501516.Google Scholar
Brisman, JL, Eskridge, JM, Newell, DW: Neurointerventional treatment of vasospasm. Neurol Res 2006;28:769776.Google Scholar
Newell, DW, Eskridge, JM, Mayberg, M, et al: Angioplasty for the treatment of symptomatic vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1989;91:654660.Google Scholar
Leroux, PD, Winn, HR: Timing of surgery and special features of ruptured anterior circulation aneurysms. In Welch, KMA, Caplan, LR, Reis, DJ, et al. (eds): Primer on Cerebrovascular Diseases. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997, pp 450454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkpatrick, PJ, Turner, CL, Smith, C, Hutchinson, PJ, Murray, GD, STASH Collaborators: Simvastatin in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (STASH): A multicenter randomized phase 3 trial. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:666675.Google Scholar
Dorhout Mees, SM, Algra, A, Vandertop, WP et al., MASH-2 Study Group: Magnesium for aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage (MASH-2): A randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2012;380;4449.Google Scholar
Graff-Radford, NR, Torner, J, Adams, HP, Kassell, NF: Factors associated with hydrocephalus after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Arch Neurol 1989;46:744752.Google Scholar
Brouwers, PJ, Wijdicks, EF, Hasan, D, et al: Serial electrocardiographic recording in aneurysmal sub-arachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1989;20:11621167.Google Scholar
Caplan, LR, Hurst, JW: Cardiac and cardiovascular findings in patients with nervous system diseases. In Caplan, LR, Hurst, JW, Chimowitz, MI (eds): Clinical Neurocardiology. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1999, pp 298312.Google Scholar
Fabinyi, G, Hunt, D, McKinley, L: Myocardial creatine kinase isoenzyme in serum after subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1977;40:818820.Google Scholar
Ramappa, P, Thatai, D, Coplin, W, et al: Cardiac troponin-I: A predictor of prognosis in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2008;8:398403.Google Scholar
Kothavale, A, Banki, NM, Kopelnik, A, et al: Predictors of left ventricular regional wall motion abnormalities after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2006;4:199205.Google Scholar
Oppenheimer, SM, Cechetto, DF, Hachinski, VC: Cerebrogenic cardiac arrhythmias. Cerebral electrocardiographic influences and their role in sudden death. Arch Neurol 1990;47:513519.Google Scholar
Di Pasquale, G, Pinelli, G, Andreoli, A, et al: Holter detection of cardiac arrhythmias in intracranial subarachnoid hemorrhage. Am J Cardiol 1987;59:596600.Google Scholar
Di Pasquale, G, Pinelli, G, Andreoli, A, et al: Torsade de pointes and ventricular flutter-fibrillation following spontaneous cerebral subarachnoid hemorrhage. Int J Cardiol 1988;18:163172.Google Scholar
Kolin, A, Norris, JW: Myocardial damage from acute cerebral lesions. Stroke 1984;15:990993.Google Scholar
Samuels, MA: The brain–heart connection. Circulation 2007;116:7784.Google Scholar
Salem, R, Vallée, F, Dépret, F, et al: Subarachnoid hemorrhage induces an early and reversible cardiac injury associated with catecholamine release: One-week follow-up study Critical Care 2014;18:558568.Google Scholar
Tsuchihashi, K, Ueshima, K, Uchida, T, Ohmura, N, Kimura, K: Transient left ventricular apical ballooning without coronary artery stenosis: a novel heart syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Angina pectoris–myocardial infarction investigations in Japan. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:1118.Google Scholar
Kurisu, S, Sato, H, Kawagoe, T, et al: Takotsubo-like left ventricular dysfunction with ST-segment elevation: A novel cardiac syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 2002;143:448455.Google Scholar
Bybee, KA, Kara, T, Prasad, A, et al: Systematic review: transient left ventricular apical ballooning: a syndrome that mimics ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:858865.Google Scholar
Hakeem, A, Marks, AD, Bhatti, S, Chang, SM: When the worst headache becomes the worst heartache! Stroke 2007;38:32923295.Google Scholar
Bybee, KA, Prasad, A: Stress-related cardiomyopathy syndromes. Circulation 2008;118:397409.Google Scholar
Ciongoli, AK, Poser, CM: Pulmonary edema secondary to subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurology 1972;22:867870.Google Scholar
Weir, BK: Pulmonary edema following fatal aneurysmal rupture. J Neurosurg 1978;49:502507.Google Scholar
Hoff, RG, Rinkel, GJE, Verweij, BH, Algra, A, Kalkman, CJ: Pulmonary edema and blood volume after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: A prospreective observational study. Critical Care 2010:14;R43R50.Google Scholar
Takaku, A, Shindo, K, Tanaki, S, et al: Fluid and electrolyte disturbances in patients with intracranial aneurysms. Surg Neurol 1979;11:349356.Google ScholarPubMed
Qureshi, AI, Suri, MF, Sung, GY, et al: Prognostic significance of hypernatremia and hyponatremia among patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery. 2002;50:749755.Google Scholar
Zheng, B, Qiu, Y, Jin, H, et al: Predictive value of hyponatremia for poor outcome and cerebral infarction in high-grade aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011;82:213217.Google Scholar
Rabinstein, AA, Bruder, N: Management of hyponatremia and volume contraction. Neurocrit Care 2011;15:354360.Google Scholar
Katayama, Y, Haraoka, J, Hirabayashi, H, et al: A randomized controlled trial of hydrocortisone against hyponatremia in patients with aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2007;38:23732375.Google Scholar
Diringer, MN, Lim, JS, Kirsch, JR, Hawley, DF: Suprasellar and intraventricular blood predict elevated plasma atrial natriuretic factor in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1991;22:572581.Google Scholar
Wijdicks, EFM, Ropper, AH, Hunnicutt, EJ, et al: Atrial natriuretic factor and salt wasting after aneurysmal subarchnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1991;22:15191524.Google Scholar
Schneider, HJ, Kreitschmann-Andermahr, I, Ghiko, E, et al: Hypothalamopituitary dysfunction following traumatic brain injury and aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A systemic review. JAMA 2007;298:14291438.Google Scholar
Kreitschmann-Andermahr, I, Hoff, C, Niggemeier, S, et al: Pituitary deficiency following aneurismal subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003;74:11331135.Google Scholar
Dimopoulou, I, Kouyialis, AT, Tzanella, M, et al: High incidence of neuroendocrine dysfunction in long-term survivors of aneurismal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2004;35:28842489.Google Scholar
Claasen, J, Vu, A, Kreiter, KT, et al: Effect of acute physiologic derangements on outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Crit Care Med 2004;32:832838.Google Scholar
Adams, HP: Current status of antifibrinolytic therapy for treatment of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 1982;13:256259.Google Scholar
Ramirez-Laseppas, M: Antifibrinolytic therapy in subarachnoid hemorrhage caused by ruptured intracranial aneurysm. Neurology 1981;31:316322.Google Scholar
Bederson, JB, Connolly, ES Jr, Batjer, HH, et al:. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. A statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association. Stroke 2009;40:9941025.Google Scholar
Kassell, N, Torner, D, Adams, H: Antifibrinolytic therapy in the acute period following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 1984;61:225230.Google Scholar
Garde, A: Amnesia after operations on aneurysms of the anterior communicating artery. Surg Neurol 1982;18:4649.Google Scholar
Damasio, AR, Graff-Radford, N, Eslinger, P, et al: Amnesia following basal forebrain lesions. Arch Neurol 1985;42:263271.Google Scholar
Serbinenko, FA: Balloon catheterization and occlusion of major cerebral vessels. J Neurosurg 1974;41:125145.Google Scholar
Guglielmi, G, Vinuela, F, Sepetka, I, Macellari, V: Electrothrombosis of saccular aneurysms via endovascular approach, part 1: Electrochemical basis, technique, and experimental results. J Neurosurg 1991;75:17.Google Scholar
Guglielmi, G, Vinuela, F, Dion, J, Duckwiler, G: Electrothrombosis of saccular aneurysms via endovascular approach, part 2: Preliminary clinical experience. J Neurosurg 1991;75:814.Google Scholar
Johnston, SC, Higashida, RT, Barrow, DL, Caplan, LR, et al: Recommendations for the endovascular treatment of intracranial aneurysms. A statement for health care professionals from the Committee on Cerebrovascular Imaging of the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Radiology. Stroke 2002;33:25362544.Google Scholar
Hopkins, LN, Lanzino, G, Guterman, LR: Treating nervous system vascular disorders through a “needle stick”: Origins, evolution, and future of endovascular therapy. Neurosurgery 2001;48:463475.Google Scholar
Lobotesis, K, Mahady, K, Ganesalingam, J, et al: Coiling-associated delayed cerebral hypersensitivity: Is nickel the link? Neurology 2015;84:9799.Google Scholar
Molyneux, AJ, Kerr, RSC, Yu, L-M, et al: International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT) of neurosurgical clipping versus endovascular coiling in 2143 patients with ruptured intracranial aneurysms: A randomized comparison of effects on survival, dependency, seizures, rebleeding, subgroups, and aneurysm occlusion. Lancet 2005;366:809817.Google Scholar
Britz, GW: ISAT trial: Coiling or clipping for intracranial aneurysms? Lancet 2005;366:783785.Google Scholar
Molyneux, AJ, Birks, J, Clarke, A, Sneade, M, Kerr, RSC: The durability of endovascular coiling versus neurosurgical clipping of ruptured cerebral aneurysms: 18 year follow-up of the UK cohort of the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT). Lancet 2015;385:691697.Google Scholar
Debrun, GM, Aletich, VA, Kehrli, P, et al: Selection of cerebral aneurysms for treatment using Guglielmi detachable coils: The preliminary University of Illinois at Chicago experience. Neurosurgery 1998;43:12811295.Google Scholar
Lanzino, G, Wakhloo, AK, Fessler, RD, et al: Efficacy and current limitations of intravascular stents for intracranial internal carotid, vertebral, and basilar artery aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1999;91:538546.Google Scholar
Greenberg, E, Katz, JM, Janardhan, V, et al: Treatment of a giant vertebrobasilar artery aneurysm using stent grafts. Case report. J Neurosurg 2007;107:165168.Google Scholar
Katsaridis, V, Papagiannaki, C, Violaris, C: Placement of a Neuroform2 stent into the parent vessel by navigating it along the inner wall of the aneurysm sac: A technical case report. Neuroradiology 2007;49:5759.Google Scholar
Pero, G, Denegri, F, Valvassori, L, et al: Treatment of a middle cerebral artery giant aneurysm using a covered stent. Case report. J Neurosurg 2006;104:965968.Google Scholar
Kupersmith, MJ, Stiebel-Kalish, H, Huna-Baron, R, et al: Cavernous carotid aneurysms rarely cause subarachnoid hemorrhage or major neurological morbidity. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;11:914.Google Scholar
Brust, JCM, Dickinson, PCT, Hughes, JEO, Holtzman, RNN: The diagnosis and treatment of cerebral mycotic aneurysms. Ann Neurol 1990;27:238246.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, MA, Rosenbaum, AE, Tyler, HR: Angiographically monitored resolution of cerebral mycotic aneurysms. Neurology 1974;24:11031108.Google Scholar
Johnston, SC, Wilson, CB, Halbach, VV, et al: Endovascular and surgical treatment of unruptured cerebral aneurysms: Comparison of risks. Ann Neurol 2000;48:1119.Google Scholar
Wermer, MJH, van der Schaaf, IC, Algra, A, Rinkel, GJE: Risk of rupture of unruptured intracranial aneurysms in relation to patient and aneurysm characteristics. An updated meta-analysis. Stroke 2007;38:14041410.Google Scholar
Sundt, TM, Whisnant, JP: Subarachnoid hemorrhage from intracranial aneurysm. N Engl J Med 1978:299:116122.Google Scholar
Raaymakers, TWM, Rinkel, GJE, Limburg, M, Algra, A: Mortality and morbidity of surgery for unruptured intracranial aneurysms. A meta-analysis. Stroke 1998;29:15311538.Google Scholar
Komotar, RJ, Moccoj, , Solomon, RA: Guidelines for the surgical treatment of unruptured intracranial aneurysms. Neurosurgery 2008;62:183193, discussion 193194.Google Scholar
Stein, BM, Wolpert, SM: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: I. Current concepts and treatment. Arch Neurol 1980:37:15.Google Scholar
Brown, RD, Wiebers, DO, Torner, JC: Frequency of intracranial hemorrhage as a presenting symptom and subtype analysis: A population-based study of intracranial vascular malformations in Olmstead County, Minnesota. J Neurosurg 1996;85:2932.Google Scholar
Hartmann, A, Mast, H, Choi, JH, et al: Treatment of arteriovenous malformations of the brain. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2007;7:2834.Google Scholar
Tonnis, W, Schiefer, W, Walter, W: Signs and symptoms of supratentorial arteriovenous aneurysms. J Neurosurg 1953;15:471480.Google Scholar
McCormick, WF: The pathology of vascular (“arteriovenous”) malformations. J Neurosurg 1966;24:807816.Google Scholar
McCormick, WF: Pathology of vascular malformations of the brain. In Wilson, CB, Stein, BM (eds): Intracranial Arteriovenous Malformations: Current Neurosurgical Practice. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1984, pp 4463.Google Scholar
McCormick, WF, Boulter, TR: Vascular malformations (“angiomas”) of the dura mater. J Neurosurg 1966;25:309311.Google Scholar
McCormick, WF: The pathology of angiomas. In Fein, JM, Flamm, ES (eds): Cerebrovascular Surgery, vol IV. New York: Springer, 1985, pp 10731095.Google Scholar
McCormick, WF, Hardman, JM, Boulter, TR: Vascular malformations (“angiomas”) of the brain, with special reference to those occurring in the posterior fossa. J Neurosurg 1968;28:241251.Google Scholar
Arteriovenous Malformations Study Group: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain in adults. N Engl J Med 1999;340:18121818.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, PL, Landrieu, P, Rodesch, G, et al: Cerebral proliferative angiopathy. Clinical and angiographic description of an entity different from cerebral AVMs. Stroke 2008;39:878885.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D, Hadley, MN, Drayer, BP, et al: Cerebral cavernous malformations: Incidence and familial occurrence. N Engl J Med 1988;319:343347.Google Scholar
Savoiardo, M, Strada, L, Passerini, A: Intracranial cavernous hemangiomas: Neuroradiologic review of 36 operated cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1983;4:945950.Google Scholar
Mason, I, Aase, JM, Orrison, WW, et al: Familial cavernous angiomas of the brain in an Hispanic family. Neurology 1988;38:324326.Google Scholar
Metellus, P, Kharkar, S, Lin, D, et al: Cavernous angiomas and developmental venous anomalies. In Caplan, LR (ed): Uncommon Causes of Stroke, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp 189219.Google Scholar
Denier, C, Labauge, P, Brunereau, L, et al: Clinical features of cerebral cavernous malformations patients with KRIT1 mutations. Ann Neurol 2004;55:213220.Google Scholar
Wilms, G, Bleus, E, Demaerel, P, et al: Simultaneous occurrence of developmental venous anomalies and cavernous angiomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1994;15:12471254.Google Scholar
Abe, T, Singer, RJ, Marks, MP, et al: Coexistence of occult vascular malformations and developmental venous anomalies in the central nervous system: MR evaluation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1998;19:5157.Google Scholar
Omojola, M, Fox, A, Vinuela, F, Debrun, G: Stenosis of afferent vessels of intracranial arteriovenous malformations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1985;6:791793.Google Scholar
Mawad, ME, Hilal, SK, Michelson, J, et al: Occlusive vascular disease associated with cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Radiology 1984;153:401408.Google Scholar
Marks, MP, Lane, B, Steinberg, GK, Snipes, GJ: Intranidal aneurysms in cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Evaluation and endovascular treatment. Radiology 1992;183:355360.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D, Nixon, BJ, Lasjaunias, P, et al: Cerebral arteriovenous malformations with associated arterial aneurysms: Hemodynamic and therapeutic considerations. Can J Neurol Sci 1988;15:130134.Google Scholar
Miyasaka, Y, Yada, K, Ohwada, T, et al: An analysis of the venous drainage system as an actor in hemorrhage from arteriovenous malformations. J Neurosurg 1992;76:239243.Google Scholar
Vinuela, F, Nombela, L, Roach, MR, et al: Stenotic and occlusive disease of the draining venous system of deep brain AVMs. J Neurosurg 1985;63:180184.Google Scholar
Hsu, FPK, Rigamonti, D, Huhn, SL: Epidemiology of cavernous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrows, DL (eds): Cavernous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 1323.Google Scholar
Kase, CS: Aneurysms and vascular malformations. In Kase, CS, Caplan, LR (eds): Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Boston: Butterworth–Heinemann, 1995, pp 153178.Google Scholar
Perret, G, Nishioka, H: Report on the Cooperative Study of Intracranial Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Section VI. Arteriovenous malformations. An analysis of 545 cases of cranio-cerebral arteriovenous malformations and fistulae reported to the Cooperative Study. J Neurosurg 1966;25:467490.Google Scholar
Crawford, PM, West, CR, Chadwick, DW, et al: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: Natural history in unoperated patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:110.Google Scholar
Graf, CJ, Perret, GE, Torner, JC: Bleeding from cerebral arteriovenous malformations as part of their natural history. J Neurosurg 1983;58:331337.Google Scholar
Hook, C, Johanson, C: Intracranial arteriovenous aneurysms: A follow-up study with particular attention to their growth. Arch Neurol Psych 1958;80:3954.Google Scholar
Patterson, JH, McKissock, W: A clinical survey of intracranial angiomas with special reference to their mode of progression and surgical treatment: A report of 110 cases. Brain 1965;79:233266.Google Scholar
Friedlander, RM: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain. N Engl J Med 2007;356:27042712.Google Scholar
Hofmeister, C, Stapf, C, Hartman, A, et al: Demographic, morphological, and clinical characteristics of 1289 patients with brain arteriovenous malformation. Stroke 2000;31:13071310.Google Scholar
Mast, H, Mohr, JP, Osipov, A, et al: “Steal” is an unestablished mechanism for the clinical presentation of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Stroke 1995;26:12151220.Google Scholar
Chimowitz, MI, Little, JR, Awad, IA, et al: Intracranial hypertension associated with unruptured cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Ann Neurol 1990;27:474479.Google Scholar
DeJong, RN, Hicks, SP: Vascular malformation of the brainstem: Report of a case with long duration and fluctuating course. Neurology 1980;30:995997.Google Scholar
Stahl, SM, Johnson, KP, Malamud, N: The clinical and pathological spectrum of brainstem vascular malformations. Arch Neurol 1980;37:2529.Google Scholar
Caroscio, JT, Brannan, T, Budabin, M, et al: Subarachnoid hemorrhage secondary to spinal arteriovenous malformation and aneurysm. Arch Neurol 1980;37:101103.Google Scholar
Jensen, H, Klinge, H, Lemke, J, et al: Computerized tomography in vascular malformations of the brain. Neurosurg Rev 1980;3:119127.Google Scholar
Daniels, D, Houghton, V, Williams, A, et al: Arteriovenous malformation simulating a cyst on computed tomography. Radiology 1979;133:393394.Google Scholar
Kaibara, T, Heros, RC: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain. In Caplan, LR (ed): Uncommon Causes of Stroke, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Leblanc, R, Levesque, M, Comair, Y, Ethier, R: Magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurgery 1987;21:1520.Google Scholar
Smith, HJ, Strother, CM, Kikuchi, Y, et al: MR imaging in the management of supratentorial intracranial AVMs. AJR Am J Roentgen 1988;150:11431153.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D, Drayer, B, Johnson, PC, et al: The MRI appearance of cavernous malformations (angiomas). J Neurosurg 1987;67:518524.Google Scholar
Gomori, JM, Grossman, RI, Hackney, DB, et al: Variable appearances of subacute intracranial hematomas on high-field spin-echo MR. AJR Am J Roentgen 1988;150:171178.Google Scholar
Requena, I, Arias, M, Lopez-Iber, L: Cavernomas of the central nervous system in clinical and neuroimaging manifestations in 47 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991;54:590594.Google Scholar
Perl, J, Ross, JS: Diagnostic imaging of cavernous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Cavernous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 3748.Google Scholar
Hardjasudarma, M: Cavernous and venous angiomas of the central nervous system. Neuroimaging and clinical controversies. J Neuroimaging 1991;1:191196.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D, Spetzler, RF, Drayer, BP, et al: Appearance of venous malformations on magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosurg 1988;69:535539.Google Scholar
Lee, C, Pennington, MA, Kenney, CM: MR evaluation of developmental venous anomalies: medullary venous anatomy of venous angiomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996;17:6170.Google Scholar
Diehl, RR, Henkes, H, Nahser, H-C, et al: Blood flow velocity and vasomotor reactivity in patients with arteriovenous malformations. A transcranial Doppler study. Stroke 1994;25:15741580.Google Scholar
Marks, M, Lane, B, Steinberg, G, Chang, P: Vascular characteristics of intracerebral arteriovenous malformations in patients with clinical steal. AJNR 1991;12:489496.Google Scholar
Stapf, C, Mohr, JP, Sciacca, RR, et al: Incident hemorrhage risk of brain arteriovenous malformations located in the arterial borderzones. Stroke 2000;31:23652368.Google Scholar
Mast, H, Young, WL, Koennecke, HC, et al: Risk of spontaneous hemorrhage after diagnosis of cerebral arteriovenous malformation. Lancet 1997;350:10651068.Google Scholar
Mansmann, U, Meisel, J, Brock, M, et al: Factors associated with intracranial hemorrhage in cases of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurgery 2000;46:272279.Google Scholar
Drake, CG: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: The options for management. N Engl J Med 1983;309:308310.Google Scholar
Heros, RC, Tu, Y-K: Is surgical therapy needed for unruptured arteriovenous malformations? Neurology 1987;37:279286.Google Scholar
Drake, CG: Cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Considerations for and experience with surgical treatment in 166 cases. Clin Neurosurg 1979;26:145208.Google Scholar
Forster, DMC, Steiner, L, Hakanson, S: Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: A long-term clinical study. J Neurosurg 1972;37:562570.Google Scholar
Hartmann, A, Mast, H, Mohr, JP, et al: Morbidity of intracranial hemorrhage in patients with cerebral arteriovenous malformation. Stroke 1998;29:931934.Google Scholar
Duong, DH, Young, WL, Vang, MC, et al: Feeding artery pressure and venous drainage pattern are primary determinants of hemorrhage from arteriovenous malformations. Stroke 1998;29:11671176.Google Scholar
Aminoff, MJ: Treatment of unruptured cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Neurology 1987;37:815819.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Parides, MK, Stapf, SC, et al. for the International ARUBA Investigators: Medical management with or without interventional therapy for unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations (ARUBA): A multicentre, non-blinded, randomised trial. Lancet 2014;383:614621.Google Scholar
Al-Shahi Salman, R, White, PM, Counsell, CE, et al: Outcomes after conservative management or intervention for unruptured brain arteriovenous malformations. JAMA 2014;311:16611669.Google Scholar
Barrow, DL: Classification and natural history of cerebral vascular malformations: Arteriovenous, cavernous, and venous. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 1997;6:264267.Google Scholar
Robinson, JR, Awad, IA, Little, JR: Natural history of the cavernous angioma. J Neurosurg 1991;75:709714.Google Scholar
Kondziolka, D, Lundsford, LD, Kestle, JRW: The natural history of cerebral cavernous malformations. J Neurosurg 1995;83:820824.Google Scholar
Robinson, JR, Awad, IA: Clinical spectrum and natural course. In Awad, IA, Barrows, DL (eds): Cavernous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 2536.Google Scholar
Moran, NF, Fish, DR, Kitchen, N, et al: Supratentorial cavernous haemangiomas and epilepsy: A review of the literature and case series. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;66:561568.Google Scholar
Garner, TB, Curling, OD Jr, Kelly, DL Jr, et al: The natural history of intracranial venous angiomas. J Neurosurg 1991;75:715722.Google Scholar
Rigamonti, D, Spetzler, RF, Medina, M, et al: Cerebral venous malformations. J Neurosurg 1990;73:560564.Google Scholar
Naff, NJ, Wemmer, J, Hoenig-Rigamonti, K, Rigamonti, DR: A longitudinal study of patients with venous malformations: Documentation of a negligible hemorrhage risk and benign natural history. Neurology 1998;50:17091714.Google Scholar
Ruiz, DS, Yilmaz, H, Gailloud, P: Cerebral developmental anomalies: Current concepts. Ann Neurol 2009;66:271283.Google Scholar
Castel, JP, Kantor, G: Postoperative morbidity and mortality after microsurgical exclusion of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. Current data and analysis of recent literature. Neurochiurgie 2001;47:369383.Google Scholar
Spetzler, RF, Wilson, CB, Weinstein, P, et al: Normal perfusion pressure breakthrough theory. Clin Neurosurg 1978;25:651672.Google Scholar
Fournier, D, TerBrugge, KG, Willinsky, R, et al: Endovascular treatment of intracerebral arteriovenous malformations: Experience in 49 cases. J Neurosurg 1991;75:228233.Google Scholar
Vinuela, F, Fox, AJ, Debrun, G, et al: Progressive thrombosis of brain arteriovenous malformations after embolization with isobutyl-2-cyanoacrylate. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1983;4:959966.Google Scholar
N-BCA Trialists: N-butyl cyanoacrylate embolization of cerebral arteriovenous malformations: Results of a prospective, multi-center trial. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2002;23:748755.Google Scholar
Saatci, I, Geyik, S, Yavuz, K, Cekirge, HS: Endovascular treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations with prolonged intranidal Onyx injection technique: Long-term results in 350 consecutive patients with completed endovascular treatment course. J Neurosurg 2011;115:7888.Google Scholar
Vinters, HV, Lundie, MJ, Kaufmann, JC: Long-term pathological follow-up of cerebral arteriovenous malformations treated by embolization with buccylate. N Engl J Med 1986;314:477483.Google Scholar
Lunsford, LD, Flickinger, J, Coffey, RJ: Stereotactic gamma knife radiosurgery. Initial North American experience in 207 patients. Arch Neurol 1990;47:169175.Google Scholar
Heros, R, Korosue, K: Radiation treatment of cerebral arteriovenous malformations. N Engl J Med 1990;323:127129.Google Scholar
Meder, JF, Oppenheim, C, Blustajn, J, et al: Cerebral arteriovenous malformations: The value of radiologic parameters in predicting response to radiosurgery. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997;18:14731483.Google Scholar
Hanakita, S, Koga, T, Shin, M, Igaki, H, Saito, N: Application of single-stage stereotactic radiosurgery for cerebral arteriovenous malformations >10 cm3. Stroke 2014;45:35433548.Google Scholar
Hartmann, A, Marx, P, Schilling, A, et al: Neurologic complications following radiosurgical treatment of brain arteriovenous malformations. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;13:50.Google Scholar
Coffey, RJ, Lunsford, LD: Radiosurgery of cavernous malformations and other angiographically occult vascular malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Cavernous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 187200.Google Scholar
Ogilvy, CS, Stieg, PE, Awad, I, et al: Recommendations for the management of intracranial arteriovenous malformations. A statement for healthcare professionals from a special writing group of the Stroke Council, American Stroke Association. Circulation 2001;103:26442657.Google Scholar
Dion, J: Dural arteriovenous malformations: Definition, classification, and diagnostic imaging. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 119.Google Scholar
Castaigne, P, Bories, J, Brunet, P, et al: Les fistules arterio-veineuse meningees pures a drainage veineux cortical. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1976;132:169181.Google Scholar
Gaston, A, Chiras, J, Bourbotte, G, et al: Meningeal arteriovenous fistulae draining into cortical veins: 31 cases. J Neuroradiol 1984;11:161177.Google Scholar
Bederson, JB: Pathophysiology and animal models of dural arteriovenous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 2333.Google Scholar
Friedman, AH: Etiologic factors in intracranial dural arteriovenous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 3547.Google Scholar
Raybaud, CA, Hald, JK, Strother, CM, et al: Aneurysms of the vein of Galen. Angiographic study and morphogenetic considerations. Neurochirurgie 1987;33:302314.Google Scholar
Hansen, JH, Segaard, I: Spontaneous regression of an extra- and intracranial arteriovenous malformation: Case report. J Neurosurg 1976;45:338341.Google Scholar
Houser, OW, Campbell, JK, Campbell, RJ: Arteriovenous malformation affecting the transverse dural venous sinus: An acquired lesion. Mayo Clin Proc 1979;54:651661.Google Scholar
Fermand, M, Reizine, D, Melki, JP, et al: Long term follow-up of 43 pure dural arteriovenous fistulae (AVF) of the lateral sinus. Neuroradiology 1987;29:348353.Google Scholar
Chung, SJ, Kim, JS, Kim, JC, et al: Intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulas: Analysis of 60 patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;13:7988.Google Scholar
Feiner, L, Bennett, J, Volpe, NJ: Cavernous sinus fistulas: Carotid cavernous fistulas and dural arteriovenous malformations. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2003;3:415420.Google Scholar
Lasjaunias, PL, Rodesch, G: Lesion types, hemodynamics, and clinical spectrum. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 4979.Google Scholar
Awad, IA, Little, JR, Akrawi, WP, et al: Intracranial dural arteriovenous malformations: Factors predisposing to an aggressive neurological course. J Neurosurg 1990;72:839850.Google Scholar
Zeidman, SM, Monsein, LH, Arosarena, O, et al: Reversability of white matter changes and dementia after treatment of dural fistulas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1995;16:10801083.Google Scholar
Awad, IA: Dural arteriovenous malformations with aggressive clinical course. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 93104.Google Scholar
Wecht, DA, Awad, IA: Carotid cavernous and other dural arteriovenous fistulas. In Welch, KMA, Caplan, LR, Reis, DJ, et al. (eds): Primer on Cerebrovascular Diseases. San Diego: Academic Press, 1997, pp 541548.Google Scholar
Purdy, PD: Management of carotid cavernous fistula. In Batjer, HH, Caplan, LR, Friberg, L, et al. (eds): Cerebrovascular Disease. Philadelphia: Lippincott–Raven, 1997, pp 11591168.Google Scholar
Takahashi, S, Tomura, N, Watarai, J, et al: Dural arteriovenous fistula of the cavernous sinus with venous congestion of the brain stem: Report of two cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1999;20:886888.Google Scholar
Halbach, VV, Higashida, RT, Hieshima, GB, et al: Treatment of dural fistulas involving the deep cerebral venous system. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1989;10:393399.Google Scholar
Awad, IA: Tentorial incisura and brain stem dural arteriovenous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 131146.Google Scholar
Cognard, C, Gobin, YP, Pierot, L, et al: Cerebral dural arteriovenous fistulas: clinical and angiographic correlation with a revised classification of venous drainage. Radiology 1995;194:671680.Google Scholar
Halbach, VV, Higashida, RT, Hieshima, GB, et al: Transvenous embolization of dural fistulas involving the transverse and sigmoid sinuses. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1989;10:385392.Google Scholar
Barnwell, S: Endovascular therapy of dural arteriovenous malformations. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 193211.Google Scholar
Hu, YC, Newman, CB, Dashti, SR, Albuquerque, FC, McDougall, GC: Cranial dural arteriovenous fistula: Transarterial Onyx embolization experience and technical nuances. J Neurointerv Surg 2011;3:513.Google Scholar
Mullan, S: Surgical therapy: Indications and general principles. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 213229.Google Scholar
Awad, IA, Barrow, DL: Conceptual overview and management strategies. In Awad, IA, Barrow, DL (eds): Dural Arteriovenous Malformations. Park Ridge, IL: American Association of Neurological Surgeons, 1993, pp 131241.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×