From 2008, the UK’s National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) changed the method of dietary data collection from a 7-d weighed diary to a 4-d unweighed diary, partly to reduce participant burden. This study aimed to test whether self-reported energy intake changed significantly over the 4-d recording period of the NDNS rolling programme. Analyses used data from the NDNS years 1 (2008/2009) to 8 (2015/2016) inclusive, from participants aged 13 years and older. Dietary records from participants who reported unusual amounts of food and drink consumed on one or more days were excluded, leaving 6932 participants. Mean daily energy intake was 7107 kJ (1698 kcal), and there was a significant decrease of 164 kJ (39 kcal) between days 1 and 4 (P < 0·001). There was no significant interaction of sex or low-energy reporter status (estimated from the ratio of reported energy intake:BMR) with the change in reported energy intake. The decrease in reported energy intake on day 4 compared with day 1 was greater (P < 0·019) for adults with higher BMI (>30 kg/m2) than it was for leaner adults. Reported energy intake decreased over the 4-d recording period of the NDNS rolling programme suggesting that participants change their diet more, or report less completely, with successive days of recording their diet. The size of the effect was relatively minor, however.

Adolescence is an important period for cognitive maturation and emotional regulation, and this age group is particularly vulnerable to developing depression. Diets rich in fruits and vegetables have been associated with decreased risk of developing depressive disorders across the lifespan, maybe due to the high flavonoid content of these foods. Previously, we have shown increases in transient positive affect (PA) in both children and young adults 2 h after administration of a wild blueberry (WBB) intervention. Here, using a randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, we investigated the effects of 4 weeks, daily WBB supplementation (containing about 253 mg anthocyanins) on transient and chronic mood in adolescents. Healthy 12–17-year old (n 64, thirty-five females) participants were randomly assigned to receive either a WBB or matched placebo supplementation. Depression and anxiety symptoms were assessed before and after the intervention period using the Mood and Feeling Questionnaire and Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale. Transient affect was assessed before, 2 weeks and at 4 weeks using PA and negative affect. Following the intervention period, there were significantly fewer self-reported depression symptoms in participants who were supplemented with WBB compared with placebo (P = 0·02, 95 % CI –6·71, –5·35). There was no between-group effect on anxiety symptoms or on transient affect. Further investigation is required to identify specific mechanisms that link flavonoids consumption and mood. If replicated, the observed effects of WBB supplementation may be a potential prevention strategy for adolescent depression and may have benefits for public mental health.

We aimed to study dietary patterns in association with the relative expression levels of PPAR-γ, vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) in women with benign breast disease (BBD). The study design was combinative, included a case-series and case–control compartments. Initially, eligible BBD patients (n 77, aged 19–52 years old) were recruited at Nour-Nejat hospital, Tabriz, Iran (2012–2014). A hospital-based group of healthy controls was matched for age (n 231, aged 20–63 years old) and sex. Dietary data were collected using a valid 136-item FFQ. Principal component analysis generated two main components (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin = 0·684), including a Healthy pattern (whole bread, fruits, vegetables, vegetable oils, legumes, spices, seafood, low-fat meat, skinless poultry, low-fat dairy products, nuts and seeds) and a Western pattern (starchy foods, high-fat meat and poultry, high-fat dairy products, hydrogenated fat, fast food, salt and sweets). High adherence to the Western pattern increased the risk of BBD (ORadj 5·59; 95 % CI 2·06, 15·10; P < 0·01), whereas high intake of the Healthy pattern was associated with a 74 % lower risk of BBD (95 % CI 0·08, 0·81; P < 0·05). In the BBD population, the Western pattern was correlated with over-expression of HIF-1α (radj 0·309, P < 0·05). There were inverse correlations between the Healthy pattern and expressions of PPAR-γ (radj −0·338, P < 0·05), HIF-1α (radj −0·340, P < 0·05) and VEGF-A (radj −0·286, P < 0·05). In conclusion, new findings suggested that the Healthy pattern was associated inversely with the risk of BBD, and this could be correlated with down-regulation of PPAR-γ, VEGF-A and HIF-1α genes, which might hold promise to preclude BBD of malignant pathological transformation.

Limited studies have investigated the effects of serum carotenoids on the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), and the findings have been inconclusive. This study aims to assess the association between serum total or specific carotenoid levels and NHL risk. This 1:1 matched, hospital-based case–control study enrolled 512 newly diagnosed (within 1 month) NHL patients and 512 healthy controls who were matched by age (±5 years) and sex in Urumqi, China. Serum carotenoid levels were measured by HPLC. Conditional logistic regression showed that higher serum total carotenoid levels and their subtypes (e.g. α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin and lycopene) were dose-dependently associated with decreased NHL risk. The multivariable-adjusted OR and their 95 % CI for NHL risk for quartile 4 (v. quartile 1) were 0·31 (95 % CI 0·22, 0·48; Pfor trend < 0·001) for total carotenoids, 0·52 (95 % CI 0·33, 0·79; Pfor trend: 0·003) for α-carotene, 0·63 (95 % CI 0·42, 0·94; Pfor trend: 0·031) for β-carotene, 0·73 (95 % CI 0·49, 1·05; Pfor trend: 0·034) for β-cryptoxanthin and 0·51 (95 % CI 0·34, 0·75; Pfor trend: 0·001) for lycopene. A null association was observed between serum lutein + zeaxanthin and NHL risk (OR 0·89, 95 % CI 0·57, 1·38; Pfor trend: 0·556). Significant interactions were observed after stratifying according to smoking status, and inverse associations were more evident among current smokers than past or never smokers for total carotenoids, α-carotene and lycopene (Pfor heterogeneity: 0·047, 0·042 and 0·046). This study indicates that higher serum carotenoid levels might be inversely associated with NHL risk, especially among current smokers.

The association between folic acid supplementation and birth defects other than neural tube defects (NTD) remains unclear. We used a log-binomial regression model to investigate if periconceptional folic acid and/or multivitamin use was associated with birth defects in Norway with prospectively collected data from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway (MBRN) during 1999–2013. We used the European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) classification system to define eleven organ-specific major birth defect groups (nervous system, eye, ear–face–neck, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, oral clefts, digestive system, abdominal wall, urinary system, genital organs and limb), with additional subgroups. Fetuses or infants whose mothers used folic acid and/or multivitamin supplements before and during pregnancy were classified as exposed. During the years 1999–2013, 888 294 (99·0 %) live-born infants, 6633 (0·7 %) stillborn infants and 2135 (0·2 %) fetuses from terminated pregnancies due to fetal anomalies were registered in the MBRN. Among the live- and stillborn infants of women who used vitamin supplements compared with infants of non-users, the adjusted relative risk (aRR) was 0·94 (95 % CI 0·91, 0·98) for total birth defects (n 18 382). Supplement use was associated with reduced risk of abdominal wall defects (aRR 0·58; 95 % CI 0·42, 0·80, n 377), genital organ defects (aRR 0·81; 95 % CI 0·72, 0·91, n 2299) and limb defects (aRR 0·81; 95 % CI 0·74, 0·90, n 3409). Protective associations were also suggested for NTD, respiratory system defects and digestive system defects although CI included the null value of 1. During the full study period, statistically significant associations between supplement use and defects in the eye, ear–face–neck, heart or oral clefts were not observed.

Although the association between fruit consumption and CHD risk has been well studied, few studies have focused on flavonoid-rich fruits (FRF), in particular strawberries and grapes. We aimed to verify the association of total and specific FRF consumption with risk of CHD by a large prospective cohort study. A total of 87 177 men and women aged 44–75 years who were free of CVD and cancer at study baseline were eligible for the present analysis. FRF consumption was assessed using a FFQ. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate the hazard ratios (HR) of CHD in relation to FRF consumption with adjustment for potential risk factors and confounders. During a mean follow-up of 13·2 years, we identified 1156 incident CHD cases. After full adjustment for covariates including demographics, lifestyles and dietary factors, the HR were 0·93 (95 % CI 0·77, 1·11), 0·91 (95 % CI 0·75, 1·11), 0·84 (95 % CI 0·67, 1·04) and 0·78 (95 % CI 0·62, 0·99) for the second, third, fourth and fifth quintiles compared with the lowest quintile of FRF consumption. Regarding specific fruits, we observed a significant inverse association for citrus fruit consumption and a borderline inverse association for strawberry consumption, while no association was observed for apple/pear or grape consumption. Although the associations appeared to be stronger in women, they were not significantly modified by sex. Higher consumption of FRF, in particular, citrus fruits, may be associated with a lower risk of developing CHD.

Prevalence and trends of different vegetarian diets remain unknown, with estimates varying depending on the source. Evidence suggests that vegetarian diets are associated with a more favourable cardiovascular risk profile. The present study aimed to assess the prevalence and trends of different types of vegetarian diets in a population-based representative sample, sociodemographic characteristics of participants following such diets and the association of these diets with cardiovascular risk factors. Using repeated cross-sectional population-based surveys conducted in Geneva, Switzerland, 10 797 individuals participated in the study between 2005 and 2017. Participants were classified as vegetarians, pescatarians, flexitarians or omnivores using an FFQ. Sociodemographic and cardiovascular risk factors were evaluated through questionnaires, anthropometric measurements and blood tests. Findings show prevalence of vegetarians increased from 0·5 to 1·2 %, pescatarians from 0·3 to 1·1 % and flexitarians remained stable at 15·6 % of the population over the study period. Compared with omnivores, vegetarians were more likely to be young (OR 2·38; 95 % CI 1·01, 5·6), have higher education (OR 1·59; 95 % CI 1·01, 2·49) and lower income (OR 1·83; 95 % CI 1·04, 3·21); pescatarians and flexitarians were more likely to be women (pescatarian: OR 1·81; 95 % CI 1·10, 3·00; vegetarian: OR 1·57; 95 % CI 1·41, 1·75) and flexitarians were also more likely to have a lower income (OR 1·31; 95 % CI 1·13, 1·53). Participants who adhered to any diet excluding/reducing meat intake had lower BMI, total cholesterol and hypertension compared with omnivores. The present study shows an increase in the prevalence of vegetarians over a 13-year period and suggests that the different vegetarian diets assessed are associated with a better cardiovascular risk profile.

Technology advancements have driven the use of self-administered dietary assessment methods in large-scale dietary surveys. Interviewer-assisted methods generally have a complicated recipe recording procedure enabling the adjustment from a standard recipe. In order to decide if this functionality can be omitted for self-administered dietary assessment, this study aimed to assess the extent of standard recipe modifications in the Dutch National Food Consumption Survey and measure the impact on the food group and nutrient intake distributions of the population when the modifications were disregarded. A two-scenario simulation analysis was conducted. Firstly, the individual recipe scenario omitted the full modifications to the standard recipes made by people who knew their recipes. Secondly, the modified recipe scenario omitted the modifications made by those who partially modified the standard recipe due to their limited knowledge. The weighted percentage differences for the nutrient and food group intake distributions between the scenarios and the original data set were calculated. The highest percentage of energy consumed through mixed dishes was 10 % for females aged 19–79 years. Comparing the combined scenario and the original data set, the average of the absolute percentage difference for the population mean intakes was 1·6 % across all food groups and 0·6 % for nutrients. The soup group (−6·6 %) and DHA (−2·3 %) showed the largest percentage difference. The recipe simplification caused a slight underestimation of the consumed amount of both foods (−0·2 %) and nutrients (−0·4 %). These results are promising for developing self-administered 24-hour recalls or food diary applications without complex recipe function.

The effects of macronutrient intake on obesity are controversial. This research aims to investigate the associations between macronutrient intake and new-onset overweight/obesity. The relationship between the consumption of carbohydrate and total fat and obesity was assessed by the multivariable Cox model in this 11-year cohort, which included 6612 adults (3291 men and 3321 women) who were free of overweight and obesity at baseline. The dietary intake was recorded using a 24-h recall method for three consecutive days. Moreover, substitution models were developed to distinguish the effects of macronutrient composition alteration from energy intake modification. During 7·5 person years (interquartile range 4·3, 10·8) of follow-up, 1807 participants became overweight or obese. After adjusting for risk factors, the hazard ratio (HR) of overweight/obesity in extreme quintiles of fat was 1·48 (quintile 5 v. quintile 1, 95 % CI 1·16, 1·89; Ptrend = 0·02) in women. Additionally, replacing 5 % of energy from carbohydrate with equivalent energy from fat was associated with an estimated 4·3 % (HR 1·043, 95 % CI 1·007, 1·081) increase in overweight/obesity in women. Moreover, dietary carbohydrate was inversely associated with overweight/obesity (quintile 5 v. quintile 1, HR 0·70, 95 % CI 0·55, 0·89; Ptrend = 0·02) in women. Total fat was related to a higher risk of overweight/obesity, whereas high carbohydrate intake was related to a lower risk of overweight/obesity in women, which was not observed in men.

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of acute changes in serum C-reactive protein (CRP) on appetite and food intake among older hospitalised patients. A total of 200 patients (age range 65–94 years, 62·5 % women) participated in this prospective longitudinal observational study. Risk of malnutrition was measured according to the Mini Nutritional Assessment Short Form. The Simplified Nutritional Appetite Questionnaire (SNAQ) and Edmonton Symptom Assessment System (ESAS) were used to evaluate patients’ appetite at the time of hospital admission (baseline) and after 7 d (follow-up). Food intake was measured according to the plate diagram and serum CRP was analysed at baseline and follow-up. At baseline, 30·5 % of the patients had moderate to severe inflammation, 31·0 % were malnourished and 48·0 % had food intake <75 % of the meals offered. Also, 32·5 and 23·5 % reported poor and very poor appetite or severe loss of appetite according to the SNAQ and ESAS, respectively. Of the patients, 40 % displayed a pronounced reduction in median CRP levels by −1·2 mg/dl and 19 % demonstrated an increase in median CRP levels by +1·2 mg/dl. Appetite significantly improved (P = 0·006) in patients with a decrease in CRP level and deteriorated in those with an increase in CRP level (P = 0·032). Changes in CRP levels did not show any significant impact on food intake. In a regression analysis, changes of inflammation were the major independent predictor for changes of patients’ appetite. We conclude that inflammation has a significant impact on appetite and should therefore be considered in the diagnosis and treatment of malnutrition.

Diet modifies the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC), and inconclusive evidence suggests that yogurt may protect against CRC. We analysed the data collected from two separate colonoscopy-based case–control studies. The Tennessee Colorectal Polyp Study (TCPS) and Johns Hopkins Biofilm Study included 5446 and 1061 participants, respectively, diagnosed with hyperplastic polyp (HP), sessile serrated polyp, adenomatous polyp (AP) or without any polyps. Multinomial logistic regression models were used to derive OR and 95 % CI to evaluate comparisons between cases and polyp-free controls and case–case comparisons between different polyp types. We evaluated the association between frequency of yogurt intake and probiotic use with the diagnosis of colorectal polyps. In the TCPS, daily yogurt intake v. no/rare intake was associated with decreased odds of HP (OR 0·54; 95 % CI 0·31, 0·95) and weekly yogurt intake was associated with decreased odds of AP among women (OR 0·73; 95 % CI 0·55, 0·98). In the Biofilm Study, both weekly yogurt intake and probiotic use were associated with a non-significant reduction in odds of overall AP (OR 0·75; 95 % CI 0·54, 1·04) and (OR 0·72; 95 % CI 0·49, 1·06) in comparison with no use, respectively. In summary, yogurt intake may be associated with decreased odds of HP and AP and probiotic use may be associated with decreased odds of AP. Further prospective studies are needed to verify these associations.

Flavonoids are suggested to reduce disease risk. Since dietary habits are acquired during early life, describing age and time trends of flavonoid intake and major food sources are important for monitoring and disease prevention in later life. We aimed to describe total flavonoid intake and food sources and to investigate age and time trends of flavonoid intake in 3–18-year-olds, from the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Designed study from 1985 to 2016. Intake was assessed annually using 3-d weighed food records (WFR). Flavonoid values were assigned using the United States Department of Agriculture database. Foods contributing to intake were determined. Age and time trends in total flavonoid and isoflavone density were analysed by sex with PROC MIXED. In total, 1312 children completed 10 758 WFR. Across all ages, daily mean total flavonoid density was lower in boys compared with girls (134 v. 146 mg/4184 kJ) and no difference in median isoflavone density (0·04 mg/4184 kJ per d) was found. The top five foods contributing to total flavonoid intake were apple with peel (15·0/17·1 %), strawberries (5·9/6·1 %), chocolate spread (3·9/3·5 %), orange juice (3·5/3·4 %) and pasta (3·5/3·4 %) for boys and girls, respectively. Overall, in boys, total flavonoid density decreased over the course of age and time. In girls, there was no association with age or time. In both sexes, isoflavone density followed a U-shaped age trend with no change over time. From a public health perspective, the overall observed downwards trend of flavonoid intake in boys deserves attention. Future initiatives should be tailored at maintaining a high flavonoid density as children age, specifically among boys.

Previous studies have shown conflicting findings regarding the relationship between maternal vitamin D deficiency (VDD) and fetal growth restriction (FGR). We hypothesised that parathyroid hormone (PTH) may be an underlying factor relevant to this potential association. In a prospective birth cohort study, descriptive statistics were evaluated for the demographic characteristics of 3407 pregnancies in the second trimester from three antenatal clinics in Hefei, China. The association of the combined status of vitamin D and PTH with birth weight and the risk of small for gestational age (SGA) was assessed by a multivariate linear and binary logistic regression. We found that declined status of 25-hydroxyvitamin D is associated with lower birth weight (for moderate VDD: adjusted β = −49·4 g, 95 % CI −91·1, −7·8, P < 0·05; for severe VDD: adjusted β = −79·8 g, 95 % CI −127·2, −32·5, P < 0·01), as well as ascended levels of PTH (for elevated PTH: adjusted β = −44·5 g, 95 % CI −82·6, −6·4, P < 0·05). Compared with the non-VDD group with non-elevated PTH, pregnancies with severe VDD and elevated PTH had the lowest neonatal birth weight (adjusted β = −124·7 g, 95 % CI −194·6, −54·8, P < 0·001) and the highest risk of SGA (adjusted risk ratio (RR) = 3·36, 95 % CI 1·41, 8·03, P < 0·01). Notably, the highest risk of less Ca supplementation was founded in severe VDD group with elevated PTH (adjusted RR = 4·67, 95 % CI 2·78, 7·85, P < 0·001). In conclusion, elevated PTH induced by less Ca supplementation would further aggravate the risk of FGR in pregnancies with severe VDD through impaired maternal Ca metabolism homoeostasis.

This study aimed to evaluate the association between socio-economic factors and the food consumption of a young population. Participants were from the Portuguese National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (IAN-AF 2015–2016) aged from 3 to 17 years (n 1153). Food consumption was assessed using two non-consecutive days of food diaries in children and two 24-h recalls for adolescents. A latent class analysis (LCA) was used to classify children’s socio-economic status (socio-economic composite classification (SCC)), categorised in low, middle or high. The associations between socio-economic variables and food consumption were evaluated through linear or logistic regression models, weighted for the Portuguese population distribution. A positive association was found between belonging to a higher level of SCC and consumption of fruits and vegetables (FV), by children (β = 2·4, 95 % CI 1·1, 3·8) and by adolescents (β = 52·4, 95 % CI 9·6, 95·3). A higher SCC, but particularly higher maternal education, was positively associated with consumption of ‘white meat, fish and eggs’. Both higher SCC and parental education were positively associated with salty snack consumption in the adolescents’ group. In conclusion, children and adolescents with higher educated parents and belonging to a high socio-economic level have a higher daily intake of FV and white meat, fish and eggs. Socio-economic factors play an important role in justifying differences in the food consumption of children and adolescents and must be considered in future interventions. The relationship between higher socio-economic position and salty snack consumption in adolescents needs to be further explored in other populations.

The longitudinal relationship between muscle strength, dietary intake and physical activity among adolescents is not well understood. We investigated the trend and longitudinal effects of dietary intakes and physical activity scores on muscle strength in adolescents. This prospective cohort study consisted of 436 adolescents (134 males; 302 females) aged 13 years at baseline (2012) who were followed up at the ages of 15 (2014) and 17 (2016) years, respectively. We measured muscle strength using a calibrated hand dynamometer, estimated dietary intake with a 7-d dietary history and physical activity scores with a validated physical activity questionnaire for older children. A generalised estimating equation was used to examine the effect of dietary intakes and physical activity on muscle strength changes. The analysis was performed separately by sex. The muscle strength for males and females had increased within the 5-year period. The dietary intakes (energy and macronutrients) also increased initially but plateaued after the age of 15 years for both sexes. Females recorded a significant declining trend in physical activity scores compared with males as they grew older. A significant positive longitudinal relationship was found between protein (β = 0·035; P = 0·016), carbohydrate intake (β = 0·002; P = 0·013) and muscle strength among males. However, no longitudinal relationship was found between dietary intake, physical activity and muscle strength among females. Higher protein and carbohydrate intake among males was associated with higher muscle strength but was not observed in females. Nutrition and physical activity focusing on strength building are required in early adolescence and need to be tailored to males and females accordingly.

Fe and iodine deficiencies are among the common forms of nutritional deficiencies globally and cause detrimental effects on mother and child. In developing countries, strategies to address these problems rarely use preventative dietary approaches. This cross-sectional study aims to ascertain whether dietary diversity score (DDS) and dietary patterns (DP) can predict the associated risk (AR) of Fe and iodine deficiencies in mother–toddler dyads during the dry/lean season in northern Ghana. Data were collected from women (15–49 years; n 118) and their toddlers (6–23 months, n 121). Dyads DDS and DP were calculated from their food intake recall. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine whether DDS, DP and socio-demographic factors predict higher odds of Fe and iodine deficiencies in dyads. DDS and DP predicted Fe and iodine deficiencies AR. Compared with DDS ≥4, women with DDS <4 have higher odds of Fe deficiency (ID) (adjusted OR (AOR) 1·82, 95 % CI 1·03, 3·21) and iodine deficiency (AOR 9·73, 95 % CI 3·19, 29·67). Two DP emerged in principal component analyses, ‘rural elites diet’ predicted ID risk in mothers (AOR 8·65, 95 % CI 1·76, 42·39), while ‘indigenous diet’ predicted iodine deficiency risk (AOR 11·41, 95 % CI 1·36, 95·97) in mothers only. The AR of Fe and iodine deficiencies in vulnerable populations may be predicted by diet-based measures in northern Ghana. We recommend further research into DDS and DP to predict Fe and iodine status of mother–toddler dyads in Ghana.

We aimed to identify the association of hydration status with insulin resistance (IR) and body fat distribution. A total of 14 344 adults participated in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008–2010. We used urine specific gravity (USG) to indicate hydration status, and HOMA-IR (homoeostasis model assessment of IR) and trunk:leg fat ratio (TLR) as primary outcomes. In multivariate logistic regression, the OR per 0·01 increase in USG for high IR was 1·303 (95 % CI 1·185, 1·433; P < 0·001). In multivariate generalised additive model plots, increased USG showed a J-shaped association with logarithmic HOMA-IR, with the lowest Akaike’s information criterion score of USG 1·030. Moreover, increased USG was independently associated with increased trunk fat, decreased leg fat and increased TLR. In mediation analysis, the proportion of mediation effects of USG on TLR via IR was 0·193 (95 % CI 0·132, 0·285; P < 0·001), while the proportion of mediation effects of USG on IR via TLR was 0·130 (95 % CI 0·086, 0·188; P < 0·001). Increased USG, a sign of low hydration status and presumably high vasopressin, was associated with IR and poor fat distribution. Direct effect of low hydration status may be more dominant than indirect effect via IR or fat distribution. Further studies are necessary to confirm our findings.

A diet rich in fruits and vegetables may reduce the risk of chronic diseases. However, in many countries, the majority of children do not eat the recommended quantities of fruits and vegetables. The present study aimed to understand associations between feeding practices in infancy (breast-feeding and first complementary food) and fruit and vegetable consumption in childhood (frequency and variety). Data were from the national, observational, cross-sectional Mothers and their Children’s Health study conducted in 2016/2017, a sub-study of the national Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health. Mothers completed a written survey on feeding practices in infancy (breast-feeding duration, use of formula, first complementary food) and children’s fruit and vegetable frequency (number of times eaten) and variety (number of different types eaten) in the past 24 h, using the Children’s Dietary Questionnaire. Children (n 4981, mean 7·36 (sd 2·90) years) ate vegetables 2·10 (sd 1·11) times and fruits 2·35 (sd 1·14) times and ate 3·21 (sd 1·35) different vegetables and 2·40 (sd 1·18) different fruits, on average. Compared with breast-feeding for <6 months, breast-feeding for ≥6 months was associated with higher vegetable variety. Compared with cereal as the first complementary food, fruits or vegetables were associated with higher vegetable frequency and variety, and higher fruit frequency. Overall, infancy is a window of opportunity for dietary intervention. Guidance to parents should encourage the use of fruits and vegetables at the beginning of complementary feeding.

The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet is an effective measure in the prevention and treatment of CVD. We evaluated recent trends in socio-economic differences in the DASH score in the UK population, using education, occupation and income as proxies of socio-economic position (SEP). We analysed data on 6416 subjects aged 18 years and older collected in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2008–2016). The DASH score was calculated using sex-specific quintiles of DASH items. Multiple linear regression and quantile regression models were used to evaluate the trend in DASH score according to SEP. The mean DASH score was 24 (sd 5). The estimated mean difference between people with no qualification and those having the highest level of education was −3·61 (95 % CI −4·00, −3·22) points. The mean difference between subjects engaged in routine occupations and those engaged in high managerial and professional occupations was −3·41 (95 % CI −3·89, −2·93) points and for those in the first fifth and last fifth of the household income distribution was −2·71 (95 % CI −3·15, −2·28) points. DASH score improved over time, and no significant differences in the trend were observed across SEP. The widest socio-economic differences emerged for consumption of fruit, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, seeds and legumes. Despite an overall increase in the DASH score, a persisting SEP gap was observed. This is an important limiting factor in reducing the high socio-economic inequality in CVD observed in the UK.