Global occurrences of herbicide resistant weed populations have increased the demand for development of new herbicides targeting novel mechanisms of action. Metagenomic approaches to natural drug discovery offer potential for isolating weed suppressive compounds from microorganisms. In past research, traditional techniques entailed isolating compounds from living organisms, whereas metagenomic approaches involve extracting fragments of DNA from soil and exploring for compounds of interest produced by the transformed hosts. Several herbicidal compounds have been isolated from soil bacteria through culturing methods and have led to the development of popular herbicides, such as glufosinate. In this review, we discuss the emergence of metagenomic approaches for weed management in the context of natural product discovery using traditional culture-dependent isolation and the more recent culture-independent methods. The same techniques can be used to isolate herbicide resistance genes. Adoption of metagenomic approaches in pest management research can lead to novel control strategies in cropping and landscape systems.

A population of oriental mustard from Port Broughton in South Australia was reported as not being controlled by 2,4-D. Dose response experiments determined this population was resistant to both 2,4-D and MCPA, requiring greater than 20 times more herbicide for equivalent control compared to a known susceptible population (from Roseworthy, South Australia) and a population resistant only to the acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS)-inhibiting herbicides (from Tumby Bay, South Australia). The Port Broughton population was also found to be resistant to three chemical groups that inhibit AHAS; however, the level of resistance was lower than the known acetolactate synthase–resistant population from Tumby Bay. Herbicides from other modes of action were able to control the Port Broughton population. Assays of isolated AHAS from the Port Broughton population showed high levels of resistance to the sulfonylurea and sulfonamide herbicide groups, but not to the imidazolinone herbicides. A single nucleotide change in the AHAS gene that predicted a Pro to Ser substitution at position 197 in the protein was identified in the Port Broughton population. This population of oriental mustard has evolved multiple resistance to AHAS-inhibiting herbicides (AHAS inhibitors) and auxinic herbicides, through a mutation in AHAS and a second nontarget-site mechanism. Whether the same mechanism provides resistance to both AHAS inhibitors and auxinic herbicides remains to be determined. Multiple resistance to auxinic herbicides and AHAS inhibitors in the Port Broughton population will make control of this population more difficult.

Kochia is a troublesome weed throughout the western United States. Although glyphosate effectively controls kochia, poor control was observed in several no-till fields in Kansas. The objectives of this research were to evaluate kochia populations response to glyphosate and examine the mechanism that causes differential response to glyphosate. Glyphosate was applied at 0, 54, 109, 218, 435, 870, 1305, 1740, 3480, and 5220 g ae ha−1 on 10 kochia populations. In general, kochia populations differed in their response to glyphosate. At 21 d after treatment, injury from glyphosate applied at 870 g ha−1 range from 4 to 91%. In addition, glyphosate rate required to cause 50% visible injury (GR50) ranged from 470 to 2149 g ha−1. Differences in glyphosate absorption and translocation and kochia mineral content were not sufficient to explain differential kochia response to glyphosate.

Annual bluegrass is a problematic turfgrass weed. Methiozolin is a new, currently unregistered herbicide that selectively controls annual bluegrass in desirable turfgrasses. Studies were conducted to evaluate and compare annual bluegrass control from PRE-applied methiozolin as influenced by rate and soil type and from POST-applied methiozolin as influenced by rate, soil type, annual bluegrass growth stage, and treatment placement. Studies were also conducted to evaluate foliar and root absorption and subsequent translocation of methiozolin by annual bluegrass using radio-tracer techniques. PRE-applied methiozolin controlled annual bluegrass > 99%. POST-applied methiozolin resulted in < 80% control regardless of foliar versus root exposure. POST applications are more effective at higher rates and smaller growth stages. Foliar-plus-soil methiozolin application trended to result in the best control, compared to foliar-only and soil-only applications. Absorption and translocation data indicate that methiozolin is absorbed by both leaves and roots and moderately translocates upward in the plant toward the leaf tip with little to no basipetal translocation. Because control is limited from a single methiozolin application (as observed in POST experiments), successful field application of methiozolin requires multiple and timely applications directed toward the roots and/or foliage of annual bluegrass.

Methiozolin controls annual bluegrass in creeping bentgrass but application timing and temperature could influence efficacy in turf. In field experiments, sequential methiozolin applications totaling 3.36 kg ai ha−1 provided excellent (> 90%) annual bluegrass control at 8 wk after initial treatment when treatments were initiated in February/March or May but programs totaling 0.84 and 1.68 kg ha−1 provided poor control (< 70%) at both timings. Methiozolin at all rates caused minimal turf injury (< 8%) but creeping bentgrass was only injured from February/March applications. In growth chamber experiments, creeping bentgrass injury from methiozolin at 10 C was 2 and 4 times greater than at 20 C and 30 C, respectively, while annual bluegrass injury was similar across temperatures. In laboratory experiments, annual bluegrass had more foliar absorption of 14C-methiozolin than creeping bentgrass at 30/25 C (day/night), compared to 15/10 C, but translocation was similar at both temperatures as > 90% of absorbed 14C remained in the treated leaf after 72 h. Annual bluegrass distributed and recovered more radioactivity to shoots from root-applied 14C-methiozolin than creeping bentgrass while both species had about 2 times more distribution to shoots at 30/25 C than 15/10 C. Metabolites were not detected in annual bluegrass or creeping bentgrass at 1, 3, or 7 d after treatment when grown at 15/10 C or 30/25 C suggesting uptake and translocation contributes to methiozolin selectivity in turfgrass.

Amicarbazone controls annual bluegrass in cool-season turfgrasses but physiological effects that influence selectivity have received limited investigation. The objective of this research was to evaluate uptake, translocation, and metabolism of amicarbazone in these species. Annual bluegrass, creeping bentgrass, and tall fescue required < 3, 56, and 35 h to reach 50% foliar absorption, respectively. At 72 h after treatment (HAT), annual bluegrass and creeping bentgrass translocated 73 and 70% of root-absorbed 14C to shoots, respectively, while tall fescue only distributed 55%. Annual bluegrass recovered ≈ 50% more root-absorbed 14C in shoots than creeping bentgrass and tall fescue. Creeping bentgrass and tall fescue metabolism of amicarbazone was ≈ 2-fold greater than annual bluegrass from 1 to 7 d after treatment (DAT). Results suggest greater absorption, more distribution, and less metabolism of amicarbazone in annual bluegrass, compared to creeping bentgrass and tall fescue, could be attributed to selectivity of POST applications.

Ripgut brome is a difficult weed to manage in cereal crops of southern Australia because only a few herbicides can provide effective control in cereals. Knowledge of seed-dormancy mechanisms, germination ecology, and emergence behavior in the field could facilitate development of effective weed control programs for this weed species. Ripgut brome populations from cropping fields were found to possess much longer seed dormancy than that reported previously in the literature. Furthermore, some ripgut brome populations from cropping fields showed longer seed dormancy than those collected from adjacent noncropped fence lines. For example, all seeds of one of the populations from the fence line (SA-1F) germinated at 3 mo after maturity, whereas seeds from the cropping field at the same site (SA-1C) showed little germination (< 3%) even at 8 mo after maturity. These highly dormant ripgut brome populations from cropping fields were responsive to cold stratification, with germination increasing significantly after 2 to 14 d of exposure. Germination of dormant ripgut brome populations increased with addition of gibberellic acid (0.001 M GA3), particularly when lemma and palea had been removed. Ripgut brome populations from cropping fields (VIC-2C and SA-1C) showed strong inhibition of seed germination when exposed to light. These differences in seed dormancy among ripgut brome populations were also expressed in seedling emergence pattern in the field. The nondormant populations collected from fence lines showed high seedling establishment (> 80%) during autumn, which coincided with the planting time of winter crops in southern Australia. In contrast, five populations from cropping fields showed much lower seedling establishment (3 to 17%) before the time of crop planting. Delayed seedling establishment in populations from cropping fields could lead to less effective preseeding weed control and higher weed infestations in field crops. Results of this study also showed that the seedbank of these highly dormant ripgut brome populations can readily persist from one year to the next. Effective management of ripgut brome populations with long seed dormancy and increased seedbank persistence would require a major change in cropping systems used by the growers in southern Australia.

Tall buttercup, a native of central and northern Europe, has become naturalized in the United States and Canada, and in South Africa, Tasmania and New Zealand. In Canada and New Zealand it has become an economically significant weed in cattle-grazed pastures. In this study we develop a CLIMEX model for tall buttercup and use it to project the weed's potential distribution under current and future climates and in the presence and absence of irrigation. There was close concordance between the model's projection of suitable climate and recorded observations of the species. The projection was highly sensitive to irrigation; the area of potentially suitable land globally increasing by 30% (from 34 to 45 million km2) under current climate when a “top-up” irrigation regime (rainfall topped up 4 mm d−1 on irrigable land), was included in the model. Most of the area that becomes suitable under irrigation is located in central Asia and central North America. By contrast, climate change is projected to have the opposite effect; the potential global distribution diminishing by 18% (from 34 to 28 million km2). This range contraction was the net result of a northward expansion in the northern limit for the species in Canada and the Russian Federation, and a relatively larger increase in the land area becoming unsuitable mainly in central Asia and south eastern United States.

Purple nutsedge is considered to be the worst weed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Although the plant is a low grower it has very strong competitive abilities. The influence of initial tuber size and cold treatment on tuber sprouting, accumulation of plant biomass and new tubers formation was studied. Tubers sprouted continuously over 30 to 50 d with significantly lower sprouting ability of small tubers (0.1 to 0.2 g). Short cold treatment (4 C for 4 d) significantly stimulated sprouting process. The early sprouting of cold treated tubers led to increased number of shoots and inflorescences and therefore more intensive biomass accumulation, as well as more intensive formation of new tubers. The increase in total biomass accumulation raises the reproductive and spreading potential of the weed.

In Asia, a significant area under rice is affected by salinity. Salt stress can affect growth of crops as well as weeds. A study was conducted in a greenhouse to determine the effect of salinity (electrical conductivity [EC] of 1, 6, 12, 18, and 24 dS m−1) on growth of barnyardgrass, horse purslane, junglerice, and rice. Growth variables were analyzed using regression analysis. The tested levels of EC influenced leaf production of barnyardgrass and junglerice but not that of horse purslane. As compared with the control treatment (EC of 1 dS m−1), shoot biomass of barnyardgrass decreased by only 24% at 12 dS m−1, whereas rice biomass declined by 59% at this level of EC. At EC of 24 dS m−1, barnyardgrass still produced 4% of the biomass of the control treatment, whereas rice did not survive at this level of EC. Junglerice shoot biomass decreased by 73% at 18 dS m−1 EC compared with the control treatment, whereas rice shoot biomass declined by more than 86% at 18 dS m−1 EC. An EC of 10 dS m−1 was required to inhibit 50% shoot biomass of rice, whereas the EC to inhibit 50% shoot biomass of barnyardgrass and junglerice was 15 and 13 dS m−1, respectively. Shoot biomass of horse purslane was not influenced by the tested levels of EC. At the highest EC (24 dS m−1), at which rice did not survive, horse purslane shoot biomass was similar to that of the control treatment. In all weed species, data for root biomass showed trends similar to those of shoot biomass. The results of this study suggest that weeds were more tolerant to salt than rice, and horse purslane was the most tolerant species among the weeds.

Palmer amaranth influences selection of crop production practices such as irrigation, nitrogen (N) application, and weed control. The objectives of this research were to determine if Palmer amaranth was more responsive to applied N than corn and if this differed under dryland and irrigated conditions in Kansas. Field experiments were conducted near Manhattan, KS, in 2005 and 2006 to evaluate the influence of N rate and Palmer amaranth densities when grown with corn in two soil moisture environments. A very drought-stressed environment and a well-watered environment occurred in 2006, while both environments in 2005 were intermediate. Dryland weed-free corn yields were 46.5% of irrigated corn yields at the high N rate across years. Irrigated corn yields responded to increasing N rates. In the presence of Palmer amaranth, parameter estimates I and A for the yield loss relationship were not different across N rates for each environment and year except 2006 where 100% yield loss was estimated in dryland compared to 62.5% loss in irrigated environment at high N rates. In three of four environment-years, N rate did not affect the corn yield loss relationship with weed density. In 2006 irrigated environment, greater N rates had less corn yield loss caused by Palmer amaranth. By corn anthesis, weed-free corn biomass was 167.5% greater in irrigated than dryland environments in 2006. Palmer amaranth with no corn increased its biomass by 373 and 361% as N rate increased in 2005 and 2006, respectively. Nitrogen concentrations in plant tissues of corn or weed increased similarly as N rates increased from 0 to 224 kg N ha−1, thus highlighting that both corn and Palmer amaranth responded similarly to increasing N. In general, soil moisture environment was most critical when determining potential corn yield, followed by Palmer amaranth density and N rate.

Interference for 40 d after emergence (DAE) of corn, cotton, peanut, and snap bean by four glyphosate-resistant (GR) and four glyphosate-susceptible (GS) Palmer amaranth populations from Georgia and North Carolina was compared in the greenhouse. Greater interference from Palmer amaranth, measured as crop height and fresh weight reduction, was noted in cotton and peanut compared with corn or snap bean. Crop height 15 to 40 DAE was reduced similarly by GR and GS populations. Crop fresh weight, however, was reduced 25 and 19% in the presence of GS and GR populations, respectively. Measured as percent reduction in fresh weight, GR and GS populations of Palmer amaranth were controlled similarly by glufosinate, lactofen, paraquat, and trifloxysulfuron applied POST. Atrazine and dicamba controlled GR populations more effectively than GS populations.

Over 90% of Canadian kochia populations are resistant to acetolactate synthase (ALS)– inhibiting herbicides. We questioned whether the target site–based resistance could affect plant growth and competitiveness. Homozygous F2 herbicide-resistant (HR) kochia plants with an amino acid substitution at Trp574 (sources: Alberta [AB], Saskatchewan [SK], and Manitoba [MB]), or Pro197 (MB, AB with two populations) were grown in replacement series with homozygous F2 herbicide-susceptible (HS) plants from the corresponding heterogeneous population (total: six populations). In pure stands, growth of HR plants from AB and SK was similar to that of HS plants, regardless of mutation; conversely, MB2-HR plants (Trp574Leu) developed more slowly and were taller than MB2-HS plants. Final dry weight of HR plants in pure stands was similar across all six populations, whereas that for HS plants in pure stands and HR–HS plants in mixed stands (50–50%) varied with population. Results for AB and SK populations suggest little impact of either ALS mutation on kochia growth, whereas those for MB lines would suggest an unidentified factor (or factors) affecting the HS, HR, or both biotypes. The variable response within and between lines, and across HS biotypes highlights the importance of including populations of various origins and multiple susceptible controls in HR biotype studies.

In the present field study, the capability of Canada thistle to develop shoots from intact roots and root fragments at different soil depths was studied. The experiments were performed on four sites with high-density Canada thistle, with three or four replications per treatment. At each site, the soil in the plots was removed layer by layer (to 30 or 40 cm, depending on the site), within a 1 by 1-m quadrat, and spread out on a plastic sheet. All roots and other plant parts were removed, and the soil was either replaced without any root material (two sites), or the roots of the thistles were cut into 10-cm-long fragments and replaced into the source holes (two sites). The measured variables were shoot number and biomass. The number of shoots of Canada thistle decreased with increasing depth (P < 0.001) and increased with time. Additionally, the two factors interacted (P < 0.001) such that shoot development was slower from greater depths. Roots from ≤ 20 cm depth produced higher biomasses than did roots from below 20 cm depth. Replacement of root fragments did not affect the amount of biomass produced. It was concluded that the intact root system contributed considerably more to the total biomass produced by Canada thistle than did the root fragments in the upper soil layers.

A greater understanding of the factors that regulate weed seed return to and persistence in the soil seedbank is needed for the management of difficult-to-control herbicide-resistant weeds. Studies were conducted in Tifton, GA to (1) evaluate whether glyphosate resistance, burial depth, and burial duration affect the longevity of Palmer amaranth seeds and (2) estimate the potential postdispersal herbivory of seeds. Palmer amaranth seeds from glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible populations were buried in nylon bags at four depths ranging from 1 to 40 cm for intervals ranging between 0 and 36 mo, after which the bags were exhumed and seeds evaluated for viability. There were no detectable differences in seed viability between glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible Palmer amaranth seeds, but there was a significant burial time by burial depth interaction. Palmer amaranth seed viability for each of the burial depths declined over time and was described by exponential decay regression models. Seed viability at the initiation of the study was ≥ 96%; after 6 mo of burial, viability declined to 65 to 78%. As burial depth increased, so did Palmer amaranth seed viability. By 36 mo, seed viability ranged from 9% (1-cm depth) to 22% (40-cm depth). To evaluate potential herbivory, seed traps with three levels of exclusion were constructed: (1) no exclusion, (2) rodent exclusion, and (3) rodent and large arthropod exclusion. Each seed trap contained 100 Palmer amaranth seeds and were deployed for 7 d at irregular intervals throughout the year, totaling 27 sample times. There were seasonal differences in seed recovery and differences among type of seed trap exclusion, but no interactions. Seed recovery was lower in the summer and early autumn and higher in the late winter and early spring, which may reflect the seasonal fluctuations in herbivore populations or the availability of other food sources. Seed recovery was greatest (44%) from the most restrictive traps, which only allowed access by small arthropods, such as fire ants. Traps that excluded rodents, but allowed access by small and large arthropods, had 34% seed recovery. In the nonexclusion traps, only 25% of seed were recovered, with evidence of rodent activity around these traps. Despite the physically small seed size, Palmer amaranth is targeted for removal from seed traps by seed herbivores, which could signify a reduction in the overall seed density. To be successful, Palmer amaranth management programs will need to reduce soil seedbank population densities. Future studies need to address factors that enhance the depletion of the soil seedbank and evaluate how these interact with other weed control practices.

Root colonization by soil microorganisms has been shown to increase the activity of glyphosate in resistant and susceptible biotypes of giant ragweed and a susceptible common lambsquarters biotype, but not in horseweed biotypes. The objective of this study was to investigate the colonization of roots in glyphosate-resistant and -susceptible giant ragweed and horseweed biotypes, and glyphosate-tolerant and -susceptible biotypes of common lambsquarters after a sublethal glyphosate application. The three weed species were grown separately in sterile and unsterile field soil and treated with glyphosate at two sublethal rates. Soil microbes were isolated from the roots onto sterile media 3 d after the glyphosate treatment. The susceptible biotypes of giant ragweed and horseweed grown in unsterile soil were colonized by more soil microbes at the higher rate of glyphosate, compared to the resistant biotype grown in unsterile soil. Oomycetes were isolated separately on a selective media and they were also more prevalent in the roots of the susceptible biotypes of each weed species grown in the unsterile soil when glyphosate was applied at the highest rate. Therefore, the ability of these three weed species to tolerate a glyphosate application may involve differences in the susceptibility to soil microbial colonization, especially oomycetes.

Interest in weed seed predation as an ecological weed management tactic has led to a growing number of investigations of agronomic and environmental effects on predation rates. Whereas the measurements in most of these studies have taken place at very short timescales, from days to weeks, measurements at longer timescales (from several months to a year) have greater relevance to the demographic impact of weed seed predation and potential contributions from this process to ecological weed management. Our aim was to quantify the impact of crop phase, within a corn–soybean–wheat crop sequence, on quarterly and annual seed predation rates of giant foxtail, giant ragweed, and velvetleaf. The study took place in areas of the northern U.S. Corn Belt contrasting in dominant land use: Savoy, IL (2005–2007), where corn and soybean production predominates, and East Lansing, MI (2005–2008), where crop production occurs within an old field/forest landscape matrix. Mean annual rates of weed seed predation by the combined action of invertebrate and vertebrate predators were 31 ± 1.6% for giant ragweed, 37 ± 1.4% for velvetleaf, and 53 ± 1.4% for giant foxtail. Crop phase had negligible effects upon long-term seed predation rates, accounting for less than 2% of observed variation. Weed species and site-year, in contrast, contributed 35% and 40%, respectively, of the variation in cumulative annual seed predation. These results are consistent with the spatial variability in best management practices seen at spatial scales greater than the county level: weed seed predation appears to be an inherently site-specific phenomenon. New developments in managing weed seed predation as an ecosystem service are therefore likely to have local recommendation domains or to be driven by stochastic annual variation related to weather or granivore demography.

We developed two leafy spurge bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries that together represent approximately 5× coverage of the leafy spurge genome. The BAC libraries have an average insert size of approximately 143 kb, and copies of the library and filters for hybridization-based screening are publicly available through the Arizona Genomics Institute. These libraries were used to clone full-length genomic copies of an AP2/ERF transcription factor of the A4 subfamily of DEHYDRATION-RESPONSIVE ELEMENT-BINDING PROTEINS (DREB) known to be differentially expressed in crown buds of leafy spurge during endodormancy, a DORMANCY ASSOCIATED MADS-BOX (DAM) gene, and several FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) genes. Sequencing of these BAC clones revealed the presence of multiple FT genes in leafy spurge. Sequencing also provided evidence that two different DAM transcripts expressed in crown buds of leafy spurge during endo- and eco-dormancy result from alternate splicing of a single DAM gene. Sequence data from the FT promoters was used to identify several conserved elements previously recognized in Arabidopsis, as well as potential novel transcription factor binding sites that may regulate FT. These leafy spurge BAC libraries represent a new genomics-based tool that complements existing genomics resources for the study of plant growth and development in this model perennial weed. Furthermore, phylogenetic footprinting using genes identified with this resource demonstrate the usefulness of studying weedy species to further our general knowledge of agriculturally important genes.

In summer, 2011, we investigated suspected glyphosate-resistant (GR) kochia in three chem-fallow fields (designated F1, F2, F3, each farmed by a different grower) in southern Alberta. This study characterizes glyphosate resistance in those populations, based on data from dose–response experiments. In a greenhouse experiment, the three populations exhibited a resistance factor ranging from 4 to 6 based on shoot biomass response (GR50 ratios), or 5 to 7 based on survival response (LD50 ratios). Similar results were found in a field dose–response experiment at Lethbridge, AB, in spring 2012 using the F2 kochia population. In fall 2011, we surveyed 46 fields within a 20-km radius of the three chem-fallow fields for GR kochia. In the greenhouse, populations were screened with glyphosate at 900 g ae ha−1. Seven populations were confirmed as GR, the farthest site located about 13 km from the three originally confirmed populations. An additional GR population more than 100 km away was later confirmed. Populations were screened for acetolactate synthase (ALS)–inhibitor (thifensulfuron : tribenuron) and dicamba resistance in the greenhouse, with molecular characterization of ALS-inhibitor resistance in the F1, F2, and F3 populations. All GR populations were resistant to the ALS-inhibiting herbicide, but susceptible to dicamba. ALS-inhibitor resistance in kochia was conferred by Pro197, Asp376, or Trp574 amino acid substitutions. Based upon a simple empirical model with a parameter for selection pressure, calculated from weed relative abundance and glyphosate efficacy, and a parameter for seedbank longevity, kochia, wild oat, and green foxtail were the top three weeds, respectively, predicted at risk of selection for glyphosate resistance in the semiarid Grassland region of the Canadian prairies; wild oat, green foxtail, and cleavers species were predicted at greatest risk in the subhumid Parkland region. This study confirms the first occurrence of a GR weed in western Canada. Future research on GR kochia will include monitoring, biology and ecology, fitness, mechanism of resistance, and best management practices.

Competition between crops and weeds may be stronger at the root than at the shoot level, but belowground competition remains poorly understood, due to the lack of suitable methods for root discrimination. Using a transgenic maize line expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP), we nondestructively discriminated maize roots from weed roots. Interactions between GFP-expressing maize, common lambsquarters, and redroot pigweed were studied in two different experiments with plants arranged in rows at a higher plant density (using boxes with a surface area of 0.09 m2) and in single-plant arrangements (using boxes with a surface area of 0.48 m2). Root density was screened using minirhizotrons. Relative to maize that was grown alone, maize root density was reduced from 41 to 87% when it was grown with redroot pigweed and from 27 to 73% when it was grown with common lambsquarters compared to maize grown alone. The calculated root : shoot ratios as well as the results of shoot dry weight and root density showed that both weed species restricted root growth more than they restricted shoot growth of maize. The effect of maize on the root density of the weeds ranged from a reduction of 25% to an increase of 23% for common lambsquarters and a reduction of 42 to 6% for redroot pigweed. This study constitutes the first direct quantification of root growth and distribution of maize growing together with weeds. Here we demonstrate that the innovative use of transgenic GFP-expressing maize combined with the minirhizotron technique offers new insights on the nature of the response of major crops to belowground competition with weeds.