To determine and compare the level of implementation of policies for healthy food environments in Thailand with reference to international best practice by state and non-state actors.

Data on the current level of implementation of food environment policies were assessed independently using the adapted Healthy Food Environment Policy Index (Food-EPI) by two groups of actors. Concrete actions were proposed for Thai Government. A joint meeting between both groups was subsequently held to reach consensus on priority actions.

Thailand.

Thirty state actors and twenty-seven non-state actors.

Level of policy implementation varied across different domains and actor groups. State actors rated implementation levels higher than non-state actors. Both state and non-state actors rated level of implementation of monitoring of BMI highest. Level of implementation of policies promoting in-store availability of healthy foods and policies increasing tax on unhealthy foods were rated lowest by state and non-state actors, respectively. Both groups reached consensus on eleven priority actions for implementation, focusing on food provision in public-sector settings, food composition, food promotion, leadership, monitoring and intelligence, and food trade.

Although the implementation gaps identified and priority actions proposed varied between state and non-state actors, both groups achieved consensus on a comprehensive food policy package to be implemented by the Thai Government to improve the healthiness of food environments. This consensus is a platform for continued policy dialogue towards cross-sectoral policy coherence and effective actions to address the growing burden of non-communicable diseases and obesity in Thailand.

We analyse temporal trends and regional variation among the most recent available anthropometric data from German conscription in the years 2008–2010 and their historical contextualization since 1956.

The overall sample included German conscripts (N 13 857 313) from 1956 to 2010.

German conscripts changed from growing in height to growing in breadth. Over the analysed 54 years, average height of 19-year-old conscripts increased by 6·5 cm from 173·5 cm in 1956 (birth year 1937) to 180·0 cm in 2010 (birth year 1991). This increase plateaued since the 1990s (1970s birth years). The increase in average weight, however, did not lessen during the last two decades but increased in two steps: at the end of the 1980s and after 1999. The weight and BMI distributions became increasingly right-skewed, the prevalence of overweight and obesity increased from 11·6 % and 2·1 % in 1984 to 19·9 % and 8·5 % in 2010, respectively. The north–south gradient in height (north = taller) persisted during our observations. Height and weight of conscripts from East Germany matched the German average between the early 1990s and 2009. Between the 1980s and the early 1990s, the average chest circumference increased, the average difference between chest circumference when inhaling and exhaling decreased, as did leg length relative to trunk length.

Measuring anthropometric data for military conscripts yielded year-by-year monitoring of the health status of young men at a proscribed age. Such findings contribute to a more precise identification of groups at risk and thus help with further studies and to target interventions.

No up-to-date data on the dietary intake of Irish adolescents are available. The aim of the present pilot study was to obtain and compare cross-sectional information on habitual adolescent beverage consumption between four distinct post-primary schools in the Republic of Ireland, in 2014–2015.

A cross-sectional observation study. A beverage consumption questionnaire was used to obtain data on beverage intake and influences on consumption.

Four post-primary mixed-sex schools in Ireland representing the following school classifications were selected for the study: urban fee-paying, urban disadvantaged, rural fee-paying and rural disadvantaged.

Students (n 761) aged 12–18 years.

Data were analysed by Kruskal–Wallis (non-parametric) ANOVA to compare the distribution of beverage consumption across the schools. Water was the most highly consumed beverage among students from all four schools (median 1425 ml/d). Students from urban and rural disadvantaged schools reported a significantly higher volume of carbonated beverage intake than students from fee-paying schools. Students from an urban disadvantaged school also reported a significantly higher volume of carbonated beverage and energy drink intake compared with the other three schools. Students from an urban fee-paying school reported the highest consumption of water, while rural disadvantaged school students were the biggest consumers of tea and milk.

Significant differences in beverage consumption (ml/d) were reported by adolescents from four schools in Ireland. Surveillance on current beverage consumption trends among adolescents is vital to guide policies and interventions, and for appropriate targeting of resources.

The present study aimed to assess the safety of gluten-free bakery products for consumption by coeliac patients.

In the current exploratory cross-sectional quantitative study, a total of 130 samples were collected from twenty-five bakeries in Brasilia (Brazil). For the quantification of gluten, an ELISA was used. The threshold of 20 ppm gluten was considered as the safe upper limit for gluten-free food, as proposed in the Codex Alimentarius.

The results revealed a total of 21·5 % of contamination among the bakery products sampled. Sixty-four per cent of the bakeries sold at least one contaminated product in our sample.

These findings represent a risk for coeliac patients since the ingestion of gluten traces may be sufficient to adversely impact on their health.

Evidence suggests that health benefits are associated with consuming recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables (F&V), yet standardised assessment methods to measure F&V intake are lacking. The current review aims to identify methods to assess F&V intake among children and adults in pan-European studies and inform the development of the DEDIPAC (DEterminants of DIet and Physical Activity) toolbox of methods suitable for use in future European studies.

A literature search was conducted using three electronic databases and by hand-searching reference lists. English-language studies of any design which assessed F&V intake were included in the review.

Studies involving two or more European countries were included in the review.

Healthy, free-living children or adults.

The review identified fifty-one pan-European studies which assessed F&V intake. The FFQ was the most commonly used (n 42), followed by 24 h recall (n 11) and diet records/diet history (n 7). Differences existed between the identified methods; for example, the number of F&V items on the FFQ and whether potatoes/legumes were classified as vegetables. In total, eight validated instruments were identified which assessed F&V intake among adults, adolescents or children.

The current review indicates that an agreed classification of F&V is needed in order to standardise intake data more effectively between European countries. Validated methods used in pan-European populations encompassing a range of European regions were identified. These methods should be considered for use by future studies focused on evaluating intake of F&V.

To assess the relative validity of the latest version of the Scottish Collaborative Group (SCG) FFQ (version 6.6) in adults living in Scotland.

A cross-sectional validation study. Participants completed the self-administered, 169-item SCG FFQ followed by a 7 d, non-weighed food diary. Energy and energy-adjusted macronutrients and micronutrients were examined for relative validity through Spearman’s correlation, the percentage of classification into thirds of intake, Cohen’s weighted kappa (κ w) and Bland–Altman analysis.

General population living in Scotland.

Ninety-six adults aged 18–65 years.

Spearman’s correlation coefficients ranged from 0·21 (retinol) to 0·71 (Mg). A median of 52 % of adults were correctly classified into thirds of intake (range: 42 % (PUFA, MUFA and Fe) to 64 % (percentage energy from carbohydrates)) and 8 % were grossly misclassified into opposite thirds of intake (range: 3 % (carbohydrates, percentage energy from carbohydrates) to 19 % (thiamin)). Values of κ w ranged between 0·20 (PUFA, β-carotene) to 0·55 (percentage energy from carbohydrates). In the Bland–Altman analysis, the smallest limits of agreement, when expressed as a percentage of the mean intake from the FFQ and food diary, were seen for the main macronutrients carbohydrates, fat and protein.

As in the previous validation study more than 10 years ago, the FFQ gave higher estimates of energy and most nutrients than the food diary, but after adjustment for energy intake the FFQ could be used in place of non-weighed food diaries for most macronutrients and many micronutrients in large-scale epidemiological studies.

To quantify the association of dietary quality with prospective changes in adiposity.

Children participating in the QUALITY (QUebec Adipose and Lifestyle InvesTigation in Youth) study underwent examination at baseline and at 2-year follow-up. Dietary quality was assessed by the Diet Quality Index–International (DQII) using three non-consecutive 24 h diet recalls at baseline. The DQII has four main categories: dietary adequacy, variety, moderation and overall balance. Fat mass index (FMI; [fat mass (kg)]/[height (m)]2), central FMI (CFMI; [trunk fat mass (kg)]/[height (m)]2), percentage body fat (%BF; [total fat mass (kg)]/[total mass (kg)]) and percentage central BF (%CBF; [trunk fat mass (kg)]/[total mass (kg)]) were assessed through dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.

Children were selected from schools in the greater Montreal, Sherbrooke and Quebec City metropolitan areas between 2005 and 2008, Quebec, Canada.

A total of 546 children aged 8–10 years, including 244 girls and 302 boys.

Regression analysis adjusting for age, sex, energy intake, physical activity and Tanner stage revealed that every 10-unit improvement in overall DQII score was associated with lower gain in CFMI (β=−0·08; 95 % CI −0·17, −0·003) and %BF (β=−0·55; 95 % CI −1·08, −0·02). Each unit improvement in dietary adequacy score was associated with lower gain in FMI (β=−0·05; 95 % CI −0·08, −0·008), CFMI (β=−0·03; 95 % CI −0·05, −0·007), %BF (β=−0·15; 95 % CI −0·28, −0·03) and %CBF (β=−0·09; 95 % CI −0·15, −0·02).

Promotion of dietary quality and adequacy may reduce weight gain in childhood and prevent chronic diseases later in life.

As numerous factors in the home environment have been related to children’s fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption as a component of a healthy diet, the purpose of the present systematic review was to examine these factors specifically for children aged 6–12 years.

Relevant observational studies published in English between January 2007 and December 2015 were obtained through electronic database searches. Studies were included if the researchers reported on a potentially modifiable measure of the home physical, political and sociocultural environment related to child F&V consumption.

Of the thirty-three articles reviewed, overall methodological quality was poor with twenty studies rated as weak, mainly due to cross-sectional design (majority of studies), selection bias, convenience sampling and voluntary participation. Half of the studies had strong–moderate ratings for using valid and/or reliable tools while for the other half, psychometric properties were either not reported or weak. The most consistent evidence for children’s combined F&V consumption was found for availability and accessibility of F&V, parental role modelling of F&V and maternal intake of F&V.

A vast array of home environment components and their influence on children’s consumption of fruits and/or vegetables have been studied in recent years. Specific components of the home environment may have more influence than others, but more compelling evidence is needed to draw strong conclusions. Recommendations are made for future studies to be based upon conceptual/theoretical models to provide consistency in defining the home environment and investigation of potential moderators, such as personal or contextual factors.

To investigate BMI-specific associations between health-related behaviours in early adolescence and the likelihood of overweight in mid-adolescence in a sample of Norwegian adolescents.

Longitudinal study of 393 adolescents recruited from schools in Telemark County, Norway. Parents reported baseline data on children’s behavioural variables and background data (at age 12–13 years). Dietary data were reported by means of a retrospective FFQ. Eating patterns were identified using principal component analysis. Height and weight were measured at baseline and 3-year follow-up. BMI-specific differences in health-related behaviours (eating patterns, physical activity and screen time) at baseline were analysed using cross-tabulation and Pearson’s χ 2 test (Fisher’s test). Associations between early health-related behaviours and the likelihood of later overweight were examined using multiple logistic regression.

Primary and secondary schools, Telemark, Norway.

Children (n 393) in 7th grade (mean age 12·7 (sd 0·3) years), followed up in 10th grade, and parents.

A moderate to high intake of a varied Norwegian eating pattern combined with moderate-to-vigorous physical activity ≥1 h/d in the 7th grade were associated with a reduced likelihood of being overweight in the 10th grade, but only among already overweight adolescents (adjusted OR=0·2; 95 % CI 0·1, 1·0). Screen time of >3 h/d in the 7th grade was associated with an increased likelihood of subsequent overweight only among adolescents with an initial normal weight (adjusted OR=2·8; 95 % CI 1·1, 7·3).

BMI-specific associations were observed between health-related behaviours in early adolescence and the likelihood of being overweight in mid-adolescence.

To investigate the prevalence and predictors of expressed breast-milk feeding in healthy full-term infants and its association with total duration of breast-milk feeding.

Prospective cohort study.

In-patient postnatal units of four public hospitals in Hong Kong.

A total of 2450 mother–infant pairs were recruited in 2006–2007 and 2011–2012 and followed up prospectively for 12 months or until breast-milk feeding had stopped.

Across the first 6 months postpartum, the rate of exclusive expressed breast-milk feeding ranged from 5·1 to 8·0 % in 2006–2007 and from 18·0 to 19·8 % in 2011–2012. Factors associated with higher rate of exclusive expressed breast-milk feeding included supplementation with infant formula, lack of previous breast-milk feeding experience, having a planned caesarean section delivery and returning to work postpartum. Exclusive expressed breast-milk feeding was associated with an increased risk of early breast-milk feeding cessation when compared with direct feeding at the breast. The hazard ratio (95 % CI) ranged from 1·25 (1·04, 1·51) to 1·91 (1·34, 2·73) across the first 6 months.

Mothers of healthy term infants should be encouraged and supported to feed directly at the breast. Exclusive expressed breast-milk feeding should be recommended only when medically necessary and not as a substitute for feeding directly at the breast. Further research is required to explore mothers’ reasons for exclusive expressed breast-milk feeding and to identify the health outcomes associated with this practice.

To compare the energy, nutrient and food group compositions of three sources of school-day lunches among students in five secondary schools in the Republic of Ireland (ROI).

Cross-sectional study conducted between October 2012 and March 2013. Students completed self-report food diaries over two school days. The energy, nutrient, nutrient density and food group composition of school-day lunches from home, school and ‘out’ in local food outlets were compared using ANCOVA and Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference post hoc analysis.

Five secondary schools in the ROI.

Male and female students aged 15–17 years (n 305).

Six hundred and fifteen lunches (376 home lunches, 115 school lunches and 124 lunches sourced ‘out’ in the local environment) were analysed. School and ‘out’ purchased lunches were significantly higher than packed lunches from home in energy (2047 kJ (489 kcal), 2664 kJ (627 kcal), 1671 kJ (399 kcal), respectively), total fat (23·5 g, 30·1 g, 16·6 g, respectively) and free (added) sugars (12·6 g, 19·3 g, 7·4 g, respectively). More home lunches contained more fruit, wholemeal breads, cheese and red meat than lunches from school or ‘out’. Meat products, chips and high-calorie beverages were sourced more frequently at school or ‘out’ than home. Fibre and micronutrient contents of lunches from all sources were low.

Home-sourced lunches had the healthiest nutritional profile in terms of energy and macronutrients. Foods high in energy, fat and free sugars associated with school and local food outlets are of concern given the public health focus to reduce their consumption. While school food should be improved, all sources of lunches need to be considered when addressing the dietary behaviours of secondary-school students.

Public health decision makers not only consider health benefits but also economic implications when articulating and issuing lifestyle recommendations. Whereas various estimates exist for the economic burden of physical inactivity, excess body weight and smoking, estimates of the economic burden associated with our diet are rare. In the present study, we estimated the economic burden attributable to the inadequate consumption of vegetables and fruit in Canada.

We accessed the Canadian Community Health Survey to assess the inadequacy in the consumption of vegetables and fruit and published meta-analyses to assemble risk estimates for chronic diseases. Based on these inadequacy and risk estimates, we calculated the population-attributable fraction and avoidable direct and indirect costs to society. Direct costs include those for hospital care, physician services and drugs in 2015.

About 80 % of women and 89 % of men consume inadequate amounts of vegetables and fruit. We estimated this to result in an economic burden of $CAN 3·3 billion per year, of which 30·5 % is direct health-care costs and 69·5 % is indirect costs due to productivity losses. A modest 1 percentage point annual reduction in the prevalence of inadequate vegetables and fruit consumption over the next 20 years would avoid approximately $CAN 10·8 billion, and an increase of one serving of vegetables and fruit per day would avoid approximately $CAN 9·2 billion.

Further investments in the promotion of vegetables and fruit will prevent chronic disease and substantially reduce direct and indirect health-care costs.

To quantitatively analyse expenditure on all fresh foods, fruits and vegetables (F&V) and fish across urban and rural households in Scotland. Fresh foods were chosen since, in general, they are perceived to contribute more to health than processed foods.

Descriptive analysis of purchase data of all foods brought into the home during 2012 from the Kantar Worldpanel database. Purchase data were restricted to fresh, unprocessed and raw foods or ‘fresh to frozen’ foods where freezing was part of harvesting. Total household purchases were adjusted for household size and composition.

Scotland.

Households (n 2576).

Rural households reported the highest expenditure per person on fresh foods and F&V, but also bought the most (kilograms) of these items. There were linear trends of average prices paid with urban–rural location (P<0·001), with average prices paid by large urban and remote rural households being £2·14/kg and £2·04/kg for fresh foods, £1·64/kg and £1·60/kg for F&V and £10·07/kg and £10·20/kg for fish, respectively, although differences were quantitatively small.

Contrary to previous studies, purchase data show that access to and average prices of fresh foods generally, and F&V and fish specifically, are broadly similar between urban and rural areas. Therefore, the higher expenditure on these foods in rural v. urban areas is probably due to factors other than pricing and availability.

Sufficient maternal dietary intake of n-3 fatty acids (FA) supports offspring development. We aimed to construct simple criteria for dietary counselling to improve intake of n-3 FA.

Serum phospholipid FA from mothers and infants were analysed by GC one month after delivery. Dietary intake of foods during pregnancy and one month after delivery were recorded using 3 d food diaries and an index for healthy eating was calculated. Fish consumption was established by questionnaires. Dietary consumption of foods resulting in an increase in serum n-3 FA was defined.

A mother–child follow-up study in Southwest Finland.

Mothers (n 90) and 1-month-old infants (n 63).

After delivery, the mother’s consumption of fish at least three times per week resulted in an increase in total serum n-3 FA (mean difference (95 % CI): 1·7 (0·7, 2·8) % of total FA, P<0·001) and DHA (1·1 (0·5, 1·8) % of total FA, P<0·001) compared with non-consumers. Persistent fish intake once weekly throughout pregnancy increased total serum n-3 FA (P=0·001) and DHA (P<0·001). Overall, a healthy diet (middle and highest tertiles of healthy eating index score v. the lowest tertile) resulted in higher total serum n-3 FA (P=0·004) and DHA (P=0·008). Mother’s diet along with higher serum levels of n-3 FA were related to serum FA levels in 1-month-old infants.

An overall healthy diet and persistent consumption of fish at least once weekly throughout pregnancy or more frequent fish intake three times per week increases n-3 FA in serum phospholipids of both mothers and their infants.

To assess the impact of the European School Fruit Scheme (SFS) in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, on children’s fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption, in particular frequency.

The study consisted of a pre-test/post-test design with an intervention (eight primary schools) and a control group (two primary schools). Children’s F&V consumption frequency was measured prior to the introduction of the SFS in 2010 and after one year’s delivery of F&V (2011).

Ten primary schools in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

In total, 499 primary-school children aged 6–11 years, 390 in the intervention and 109 in the control schools.

Children highly appreciated the SFS. More than 90 % evaluated the programme positively. Children in the intervention group showed a significant increase in F&V intake frequency from baseline to follow-up, from on average 1·26 (sd 1·37) to 2·02 (sd 1·33) times/d (P=0·000). The intervention variable had a highly significant impact on children’s F&V consumption frequency, even after controlling for gender, age and stay at school for lunch (β=0·773; 95 % CI 0·59, 0·96). The SFS did not induce a reduction of F&V consumption at home. In the control group a non-significant decline in F&V consumption frequency from 1·31 (sd 1·26) to 1·18 (sd 1·34) times/d (P=0·325) was observed.

One year after the programme’s implementation, the SFS led to a significant short-term increase in children’s F&V consumption.

To generate evidence-based conclusions about the effect of wine consumption on weight gain and abdominal fat accumulation and distribution in patients with type 2 diabetes.

In the 2-year randomized controlled CASCADE (CArdiovaSCulAr Diabetes & Ethanol) trial, patients following a Mediterranean diet were randomly assigned to drink 150 ml of mineral water, white wine or red wine with dinner for 2 years. Visceral adiposity and abdominal fat distribution were measured in a subgroup of sixty-five participants, using abdominal MRI.

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Soroka-Medical Center and the Nuclear Research Center Negev, Israel.

Alcohol-abstaining adults with well-controlled type 2 diabetes.

Forty-eight participants (red wine, n 27; mineral water, n 21) who completed a second MRI measurement were included in the 2-year analysis. Similar weight losses (sd) were observed: red wine 1·3 (3·9) kg; water 1·0 (4·2) kg (P=0·8 between groups). Changes (95 % CI) in abdominal adipose-tissue distribution were similar: red wine, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) −3·0 (−8·0, 2·0) %, deep subcutaneous adipose tissue (DSAT) +5·2 (−1·1, 11·6) %, superficial subcutaneous adipose tissue (SSAT) −1·9 (−5·0, 1·2) %; water, VAT −3·2 (−8·9, 2·5) %, DSAT +2·9 (−2·8, 8·6) %, SSAT −0·15 (−3·3, 2·9) %. No changes in antidiabetic medication and no substantial changes in energy intake (+126 (sd 2889) kJ/d (+30·2 (sd 690) kcal/d), P=0·8) were recorded. A 2-year decrease in glycated Hb (β=0·28, P=0·05) was associated with a decrease in VAT.

Moderate wine consumption, as part of a Mediterranean diet, in persons with controlled diabetes did not promote weight gain or abdominal adiposity.

In autumn 2012, Massachusetts schools implemented comprehensive competitive food and beverage standards similar to the US Department of Agriculture’s Smart Snacks in School standards. We explored major themes raised by food-service directors (FSD) regarding their school-district-wide implementation of the standards.

For this qualitative study, part of a larger mixed-methods study, compliance was measured via direct observation of foods and beverages during school site visits in spring 2013 and 2014, calculated to ascertain the percentage of compliant products available to students. Semi-structured interviews with school FSD conducted in each year were analysed for major implementation themes; those raised by more than two-thirds of participating school districts were explored in relationship to compliance.

Massachusetts school districts (2013: n 26; 2014: n 21).

Data collected from FSD.

Seven major themes were raised by more than two-thirds of participating school districts (range 69–100 %): taking measures for successful transition; communicating with vendors/manufacturers; using tools to identify compliant foods and beverages; receiving support from leadership; grappling with issues not covered by the law; anticipating changes in sales of competitive foods and beverages; and anticipating changes in sales of school meals. Each theme was mentioned by the majority of more-compliant school districts (65–81 %), with themes being raised more frequently after the second year of implementation (range increase 4–14 %).

FSD in more-compliant districts were more likely to talk about themes than those in less-compliant districts. Identified themes suggest best-practice recommendations likely useful for school districts implementing the final Smart Snacks in School standards, effective July 2016.

In England, standards for school meals included both foods and nutrients until 2015. School policies for packed lunches are generally food based; research is needed to determine whether these are adequate or whether a small number of nutrients would potentially improve their quality.

From dietary data obtained using a weighed dietary assessment tool, a diet quality score (DQS) for packed lunches was calculated using the number of standards met out of twenty-one (eight foods and thirteen nutrients). Multilevel regression analysis determined the foods and nutrients contributing to variation in the DQS.

Eighty-nine primary schools across the four regions of the UK (England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland).

British schoolchildren (n 1294), aged 8–9 years, taking a packed lunch.

The optimal model included all eight foods and seven of the thirteen nutrients, explaining 72 % of the variance in DQS. Folate, Fe and vitamin C, together with the eight food groups, explained 70 % of DQS variation.

Ideally, policies for school packed lunches should include food-based standards plus recommendations based on a small number of nutrients.