It is known that the refinement theorems for direct decompositions, now classical for group theory, are true, under suitable chain conditions, for two large classes of algebras. These are (1) the algebras whose congruences commute and (2) the algebras with a binary operation of a particular type generated by what we shall call a decomposition operator. On the other hand, there exist finite algebras for which the refinement theorems are not true. The problem of characterizing algebras for which the theorems are true arises at once. It is difficult, because the structures of algebras of classes (1) and (2) can be, to a large extent, incompatible. To illustrate this, we mention that any algebra of (2) has a naturally defined centre which is an Abelian group under the binary operation.

The theory developed in our first paper is applied here to the case of algebras A such that every pair of congruences on A commute. The general refinement theorem which we obtain is already known when the ascending and descending chain conditions hold for the lattice of congruences. This result is due to O. Ore. We here weaken this finiteness assumption to a point comparable with that of group theory when both chain conditions are assumed for subgroups of the centre. Our path to the theorem is obtained by adapting to a different situation methods developed by Kurosch, Baer, and Jónsson and Tarski. From Kurosch (4) we take the concept of the centre of a pair of direct decompositions, which we extend and formulate as a pair of mappings π [α, β; γ, δ] over the set of congruences. In this connexion, Theorems 12·5 and 12·6 appear to be new, even for groups. From Baer (1) we take the concept of canonical refinements and generalize it to our case. The final approach (§ 14) to the refinement theorem is essentially following Jónsson-Tarski (3). Possibly our most interesting conclusion is that the elegant methods using endomorphisms, introduced by Fitting into group theory, generalize naturally to our case.

In this note we are concerned with the semi-group Snr, generated by n of its elements, in which each element x satisfies the equation xr = x, the semi-group being otherwise free. The main result proved is that the proposition

(Ar) Snris finite for all finite n, is equivalent to the proposition

(Br) the group Bn, r−1, generated by n of its elements, in which each element x satisfies the equation xr−1 = 1, the group being otherwise free, is finite for all finite n.

1. The Hahn-Banach theorem on the extension of linear functionals holds in real and complex Banach spaces, but it is well known that it is not in general true in a normed linear space over a field with a non-Archimedean valuation. Sufficient conditions for its truth in such a space have been given, however, by Monna and by Cohen‡. In the present paper, we show that a necessary condition for the property is that the space be totally non-Archimedean in the sense of Monna, and establish a necessary and sufficient condition on the field for the theorem to hold in every totally non-Archimedean space over the field. This result is obtained as a special case of a more general theorem concerning linear operators, which is analogous to a theorem of Nachbin ((6), Theorem 1) concerning operators in real Banach spaces.

1. In this paper I investigate the tangential properties of parametric surfaces, leading to the main result that the Lebesgue area is the Hausdorff two-dimensional measure of the set of points of the surface where an approximate tangential plane exists.

1. In a recent paper(1), Afriat has given necessary and sufficient conditions for a real quadratic form to be positive definite on a linear manifold, in terms of the dual Grassmannian coordinates of the manifold. Considerable matrix manipulations were used in Afriat's method, but most of these may be avoided by the method of the present paper, which depends on some well-known properties of the Grassmannian coordinates. We first show that the conditions may be expressed as a set of inequalities which are quadratic in the Grassmannian coordinates of the manifold. Then, by a standard theorem, these may be transformed into Afriat's conditions on the dual coordinates.

In this paper I prove the following results.

Theorem 1. Let f(x, y) = ax2 + bxy + cy2be an indefinite form. Then there exist real (x0, y0) such that

for all (x, y) ≡ (x0, y0) (mod 1). If f represents 0 there are indenumerably many such incongruent (x0, y0).

S. Bernstein (see(l), pp. 198–204) has proved that if

is an entire function of genus zero, then the series

is convergent. By considering the most unfavourable case, when all the (βn) are positive real numbers, and writing

which is convergent by hypothesis, he proved that

.

In the theory of functions of a complex variable a positive quantity g(r), denned in terms of a circle |z| = r, can often be estimated by means of another similar quantity f(R) denned in terms of a circle |z| = R with R > r. Inequalities of the form

arise in this connexion. Putting R = r + h we have for every h > 0

.

In considering the statistics of the ‘no-field’ square Ising lattice in which each unit is capable of two configurations and only nearest neighbours interact, Kramers and Wannier (3) were able to deduce an inversion transformation under which the partition function of the lattice is invariant when the temperature is transformed from a low to a high (‘inverted’) value. The important property of this inversion transformation is that its fixed point gives the transition point of the lattice.

It is proved that the matrix algebra for any relativistic wave equation of half-odd integral spin can be factorized as the direct product of a Dirac algebra and another, called a ξ-algebra. The structure and representation of ξ-algebras are studied in detail. The factorization simplifies calculations with particles of spin > ½, because the ξ-algebra contains only one-sixteenth as many elements as the original matrix algebra.

When the electric intensities on two parallel planes, of which the two perfectly conducting sides of a wave-guide of finite length and infinite width are portions, are taken as unknowns, the problem of the diffraction of a plane harmonic electromagnetic wave polarized parallel to the edges of the guide leads to two integral equations. By means of the Laplace transform these equations are converted into others suitable for solution by successive substitutions. The series thus obtained is too complex for practical purposes, and so an approximate solution is found for the case when the length of the guide is large compared with the wavelength. Finally, there is a brief discussion of the difference between the distant fields when l is large and when l is infinite.

The problem discussed in this paper is the enlargement of a circular hole in a flat sheet of which the material is in plastic flow under constant shear stress; inertia terms are taken into account in the equilibrium equations so as to permit the occurrence of high velocities.

The treatment is in some ways analogous to that of problems in one-dimensional compressible gas flow. The characteristic equations are seen to represent straight lines under certain initial conditions; this facilitates consideration of any mode of enlargement; in particular, uniform acceleration is illustrated by numerical calculations. There appears a circular shock-front, i.e. a discontinuity in thickness and velocity moving ahead of the hole. The initial conditions for the existence of this ‘simple wave' solution involve a singularity at the centre of the plate.

In general, the characteristic curves will not be straight lines and the equations are best solved step by step. Their characteristic form is well adapted to such a process; this is outlined for the interesting case of initial enlargement with uniform velocity followed by expansion under constant acceleration.

Curves illustrate some of the general results.

1. The problem of this paper was first attempted some years ago at the suggestion of Sir G. I. Taylor, to whom the writer makes grateful acknowledgement, in connexion with experimental work in which he and others (5,6) had used half-pitot tubes in order to measure fluid velocities as near as possible to a fixed boundary.

We consider the perturbation of the velocity of an inviscid incompressible fluid rotating about an axis with uniform angular velocity Ω, due to the slow uniform motion, after an impulsive start, of a sphere of radius a along the axis with velocity − V. This problem was first considered by Taylor (4), who obtained a family of solutions for the case of steady motion of a sphere along the axis of rotation of the fluid. All the solutions satisfied the boundary condition at the surface of the sphere and also the condition that the relative velocity should vanish at infinity. It was thought possible that the indeterminacy lay in the manner in which the motion was started. However, an experiment carried out in connexion with the problem showed that if V/aΩ was less than about 0·16 a column of liquid of the same diameter as the sphere was apparently pushed along in front of it. This agreed with Proudman's observation (3) that if the perturbation was small and steady it would be two-dimensional, while in Taylor's solutions the relative motion of the fluid was not small. Taylor (5) suggested that three possibilities presented themselves. Either the motion never becomes steady, or it becomes steady but not small, or it becomes steady and two-dimensional. Of these he preferred the latter, which seems to occur in practice.

The solution for the flow of an incompressible fluid past an infinitely long wedge with a finite sloping edge (a finite wedge) is generalized by the hodograph method. In the flow thus obtained the axis of symmetry and a sloping edge of the wedge are again part of one streamline. It becomes possible to describe the flow of an ideal gas past a finite wedge if the hypothesis is made that the first singularity on this streamline, along the sloping edge, corresponds to the shoulder of the wedge. For a given wedge, with gradually increasing velocity at infinity upstream, the singularity appears at first at subsonic velocity. Beyond a certain critical velocity at infinity the singularity is always associated with the speed of sound. The hypothesis thus implies that put forward by Maccoll(9) and supported by Busemann(l). A qualitative examination shows that the solution reproduces experimentally known features of the flow of compressible fluid past a finite wedge.

A superconducting tangent galvanometer suitable for the measurement of thermoelectric voltages in circuits of resistance about 10−7 ohm is described. The inductance has been kept low by the use of only a single turn in each of the deflecting coils, but a high sensitivity has been attained by reducing the controlling field to about 0·01 gauss. The theory of operation of such a galvanometer in circuits of low resistance is discussed; the actual behaviour of the instrument is in satisfactory agreement with the theory. The galvanometer will detect a current of 10−5 A. corresponding to an e.m.f. of 10−12 V.