We conducted experiments in a laboratory to study turbulent flow over wind generated water waves. The experiments were performed in a wind-wave-current flume with three free stream wind speeds of Uref = 6.0, 8.0 and 10.0 m s−1, corresponding to 10 m equivalent wind speed of U10 = 10.2, 12.2 and 14.1 m s−1 and the root-mean-square wave height of 0.7, 1.1 and 1.7 cm, respectively, at a fetch of 6.2 m. The instantaneous velocity fields above the waves were obtained by using a particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique. The velocity fields were decomposed into the mean, wave-induced and turbulent velocity components. The tested wind waves were primarily dissipated by capillaries and microscale breaking waves. The Bond number and the shear velocity-fetch based Reynolds number were found to correlate with the wind wave regimes well. The turbulent dissipation rates above the water surface were determined based on resolved spatial gradient of instantaneous velocities, where the time-averaged dissipation rate values were calibrated using those estimated from the one-dimensional velocity spectrum in the temporal space. Subsequently, the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget including its production, dissipation, advection and turbulent transport was presented. In addition, conditional averaging analysis of the TKE budgets over leeward, windward sides and all phases was performed. The results showed a strong dependency with the wave phase in the TKE budget terms except for the dissipation. The production-dissipation ratio increased significantly as the wind speed increased, likely attributed to the increased roughness over the substantial coverage of micro-breaking waves.

Advective–diffusive transport in Poiseuille flow through a channel with partially absorbing walls is a classical problem with applications to a broad range of natural and engineered scenarios, ranging from solute and heat transport in porous and fractured media to absorption in biological systems and chromatography. We study this problem from the perspective of transverse distributions of surviving mass and velocity, which are a central ingredient of recent stochastic models of transport based on the sampling of local flow velocities along trajectories. We show that these distributions tend to asymptotic equilibria for large times and travel distances, and derive rigorous explicit expressions for arbitrary reaction rate. We find that the equality of flux-weighted and breakthrough distributions that holds for conservative transport breaks in the presence of reaction, and that the average velocity of the scalar plume is no longer fully characterized by the transverse distribution of flow velocities sampled at a given time.

The two-dimensional gravity-driven motion of a relatively dense viscous liquid at the base of a granular mush is investigated using a model that exploits the relative shallowness of the flow. The granular mush obeys a $\mu (I)$-rheology, and we assume that the two phases are segregated throughout the motion. The viscous liquid spreads under gravity, carrying the granular mush above and transporting it outwards as levees at either end of the flow. The accumulation of granular material away from the centre of the deposit produces hydrostatic pressure gradients that retard the viscous gravity current. At later times, the granular mush is quasi-static relative to the moving liquid owing to the balance of outward granular transfer by the liquid and inward hydrostatic pressure gradients associated with the granular free surface. The viscous liquid exhibits a Poiseuille-like flow structure with negligible velocity at both the base and the granular interface. The flow of a fixed volume of viscous liquid becomes self-similar with the effective viscosity quadrupled relative to a classical viscous gravity current owing to the retarding effects of the granular mush. The case of constant input flux of viscous liquid is also analysed. The qualitative features are akin to the fixed volume case with the granular mush forming levees and slowing the viscous spreading. The case in which the upper medium is a Bingham material rather than a granular mush is also discussed, and the same features are observed, demonstrating the importance of the yield criterion in the upper medium.

The classical Cox–Voinov theory of contact line motion provides a relation between the macroscopically observable contact angle, and the microscopic wetting angle as a function of contact-line velocity. Here, we investigate how viscoelasticity, specifically the normal stress effect, modifies the wetting dynamics. Using the thin film equation for the second-order fluid, it is found that the normal stress effect is dominant at small scales yet can significantly affect macroscopic motion. We show that the effect can be incorporated in the Cox–Voinov theory through an apparent microscopic angle, which differs from the true microscopic angle. The theory is applied to the classical problems of drop spreading and dip coating, which shows how normal stress facilitates (inhibits) the motion of advancing (receding) contact lines. For rapid advancing motion, the apparent microscopic angle can tend to zero, in which case the dynamics is described by a regime that was already anticipated in Boudaoud (Eur. Phys. J. E, vol. 22, 2007, pp. 107–109).

Particle trapping and manipulation have a wide range of applications in biotechnology and engineering. Recently, a flow-based, particle-trapping device called the Stokes trap was developed for trapping and control of small particles in the intersection of multiple branches in a microfluidic channel. This device can also be used to perform rheological experiments to determine the viscoelastic response of an emulsion or suspension. We show that besides these applications, the various flow modes produced by the Stokes trap are able to manipulate drop shapes and induce active mixing inside droplets. To this end, we analyse the dynamics of a droplet in a Stokes trap through boundary-integral simulations. We also explore the dynamic response of drop shape with respect to distinct external flow modes, which allows us to perform numerical experiments such as step strain and oscillatory extension. A linear controller is used to manipulate drop position, and the drop deformation is characterized by a spherical-harmonic decomposition. For small drop deformations, we observe a linear superposition of harmonics, which, surprisingly, seems to hold even for moderate deformations. This result indicates that such a device can be used for shape control of droplets. We also investigate how the different flow modes may be combined to induce mixing inside the droplets. The transient combination of modes produces an effective chaotic mixing, which is characterized by a mixing number. The mixing inside the droplet can be further enhanced for lower viscosity ratios and low, but non-zero capillary number and flow frequencies.

This paper investigates the linear and nonlinear evolution of radiating modes under the influence of the spontaneously emitted Mach waves in a simple set-up of the supersonic boundary layers that develop in the entry region of a channel formed by two parallel semi-infinite flat plates. Two scenarios are considered. The first occurs in the boundary layers having identical wall conditions, where the Mach wave emitted by a radiating mode in one boundary layer influences the instability in the other. The second scenario takes place when the wall temperatures are different, in which case the spontaneously radiated Mach wave is reflected by the other boundary layer back to act on the radiating mode. Appropriate amplitude equations with the acoustic feedback effect being accounted for are derived. In each case, the effect of the spontaneously emitted sound contributes a linear term of delay type to the respective amplitude equation. For the first scenario, analytical and numerical studies of the amplitude equations show that due to the back action of the spontaneously radiated Mach wave, the amplitude exhibits rapid oscillations, and in the case of enhanced feedback effects, its envelope experiences near extinction followed by resurrection. The study of the coupled equations shows that the two modes with different initial amplitudes either undergo oscillations before attenuating, or terminate a finite-distance singularity at different locations. For the second scenario, the acoustic feedback produces similar effects in a broad range of wall temperature. The effects become pronounced, and the dependence on the wall temperature becomes more sensitive when the latter approaches the value corresponding to the resonance. Estimates suggest that such acoustic feedback is likely to be present in typical wind tunnel experiments and models for scramjet combustors.

This paper investigates the linear and nonlinear evolution of radiating modes in supersonic boundary layers under the influence of impinging sound waves. It is found that the ensuing boundary-layer response is extraordinarily large for a subset of the sound frequency and incident angle, and the resonant over-reflection, corresponding to the reflection coefficient becoming infinite, occurs at a particular pairing of frequency and incident angle. At this point, the reflected wave coincides with a locally neutral radiating mode, which emits spontaneously sound in the form of Mach waves. A fundamental resonance takes place between the incident wave and the radiating mode. Viewed in a developing boundary layer, the response is rendered finite by introducing non-parallelism and nonlinear effects near the neutral location of the radiating mode, where the sound wave directly excites the radiating mode and/or acts on the pre-existing radiating mode. Inhomogeneous amplitude equations are derived to describe the excitation as well as the nonlinear development of the radiating mode in the two regimes where non-equilibrium and non-parallelism play a leading-order role, respectively. A composite amplitude equation is then constructed to take into account both non-parallelism and non-equilibrium effects. This amplitude equation is, with an appropriate initial condition, solved to quantify the impact of the impinging sound wave on the linear and nonlinear instability characteristics of the radiating mode. The far-field analysis shows that the Mach wave field of the radiating mode is changed significantly due to the incident sound.

This study investigates the influence of suspended kelp farms on ocean mixed layer hydrodynamics in the presence of currents and waves. We use the large eddy simulation method, where the wave effect is incorporated by solving the wave-averaged equations. Distinct Langmuir circulation patterns are generated within various suspended farm configurations, including horizontally uniform kelp blocks and spaced kelp rows. Intensified turbulence arises from the farm-generated Langmuir circulation, as opposed to the standard Langmuir turbulence observed without a farm. The creation of Langmuir circulation within the farm is attributed to two primary factors depending on farm configuration: (i) enhanced vertical shear due to kelp frond area density variability, and (ii) enhanced lateral shear due to canopy discontinuity at lateral edges of spaced rows. Both enhanced vertical and lateral shear of streamwise velocity, representing the lateral and vertical vorticity components, respectively, can be tilted into downstream vorticity to create Langmuir circulation. This vorticity tilting is driven by the Craik–Leibovich vortex force associated with the Stokes drift of surface gravity waves. In addition to the farm-generated Langmuir turbulence, canopy shear layer turbulence is created at the farm bottom edge due to drag discontinuity. The intensity of different types of turbulence depends on both kelp frond area density and the geometric configuration of the farm. The farm-generated turbulence has substantial consequences for nutrient supply and kelp growth. These findings also underscore the significance of the presence of obstacle structures in modifying ocean mixed layer characteristics.

Data-driven discovery of governing equations is of great significance for helping us understand intrinsic mechanisms and build physical models. Recently, numerous highly innovative algorithms have emerged, aimed at inversely discovering the underlying governing equations from data, such as sparse regression-based methods and symbolic regression-based methods. Along this direction, a novel dimensional homogeneity constrained gene expression programming (DHC-GEP) method is proposed in this work. The DHC-GEP simultaneously discovers the forms and coefficients of functions using basic mathematical operators and physical variables, without requiring preassumed candidate functions. The constraint of dimensional homogeneity is capable of filtering out the overfitting equations effectively. The key advantages of DHC-GEP compared with the original gene expression programming, including being more robust to hyperparameters, the noise level and the size of datasets, are demonstrated on two benchmark studies. Furthermore, DHC-GEP is employed to discover the unknown constitutive relations of two representative non-equilibrium flows. Galilean invariance and the second law of thermodynamics are imposed as constraints to enhance the reliability of the discovered constitutive relations. Comparisons, both quantitative and qualitative, indicate that the derived constitutive relations are more accurate than the conventional Burnett equations in a wide range of Knudsen numbers and Mach numbers, and are also applicable to the cases beyond the parameter space of the training data.

This study demonstrates an experimental realization of turbulence control strategies previously explored by Choi et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 262, 1994, pp. 75–110) through numerical simulations. To conduct the experiments, a deformable surface with a streamwise array of 16 independently controlled actuators was developed. A real-time particle image velocimetry (RT-PIV) system was also created for flow measurements. The objective of the control strategy was to target the sweep and ejection motions of the vortex shedding from a spherical cap placed in a laminar boundary layer. Reactive control strategies consisted of wall-normal surface deformations that opposed or complied with the wall-normal (v) or streamwise (u) velocity fluctuations obtained from the RT-PIV. The results showed two primary outcomes of the control approach. Firstly, it effectively hindered the advancement of sweep motions towards the wall. Secondly, it disrupted the periodic shedding of vortices. The v-control with opposing wall motions and u-control with compliant wall motions exhibited strong inhibition of sweep motions, while the v-control with compliant and u-control with opposing wall motions showed weaker inhibition. All reactive control cases resulted in the disruption of vortex shedding. In some instances, this disruption was accompanied by increased turbulent kinetic energy due to the generation of additional flow motions. However, the v-control with opposing wall motions significantly reduced the vortex-shedding energy while maintaining total turbulent kinetic energy close to or below that of the unforced flow. Overall, the experiments show the effectiveness of reactive control strategies in mitigating sweep motions and disrupting vortical structures, offering insights for developing reactive control strategies.

We have performed numerical simulations to investigate the phenomenon of axial pattern formation exhibited by a non-neutrally buoyant concentrated suspension. Continuum modelling of the concentrated suspension is done using the suspension balance model to identify the underlying mechanism of the phenomenon. We demonstrate that axial concentration variations become amplified to axial bands owing to the influence of the second normal stress difference ($N_2$), and the first normal difference ($N_1$) accentuates the effect of $N_2$. We demonstrate that the end walls of the rotating cylinder are necessary to prevent the smearing out of axial bands but are not a direct cause of the phenomenon.

The molten sand that is a mixture of calcia, magnesia, alumina and silicate, known as CMAS, is characterized by its high viscosity, density and surface tension. The unique properties of CMAS make it a challenging material to deal with in high-temperature applications, requiring innovative solutions and materials to prevent its buildup and damage to critical equipment. Here, we use multiphase many-body dissipative particle dynamics simulations to study the wetting dynamics of highly viscous molten CMAS droplets. The simulations are performed in three dimensions, with varying initial droplet sizes and equilibrium contact angles. We propose a parametric ordinary differential equation (ODE) that captures the spreading radius behaviour of the CMAS droplets. The ODE parameters are then identified based on the physics-informed neural network (PINN) framework. Subsequently, the closed-form dependency of parameter values found by the PINN on the initial radii and contact angles are given using symbolic regression. Finally, we employ Bayesian PINNs (B-PINNs) to assess and quantify the uncertainty associated with the discovered parameters. In brief, this study provides insight into spreading dynamics of CMAS droplets by fusing simple parametric ODE modelling and state-of-the-art machine-learning techniques.

The topology of turbulent coherent structures is known to regulate the transport of energy, mass and momentum in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). While previous research has primarily focused on characterizing the structure of turbulence in stationary ABL flows, real-world scenarios frequently deviate from stationarity, giving rise to nuanced and poorly understood changes in the turbulence geometry and associated transport mechanisms. This study sheds light on this problem by examining topological changes in ABL turbulence induced by non-stationarity and their effects on momentum transport. Results from a large-eddy simulation of pulsatile open channel flow over an array of surface-mounted cuboids are examined. The analysis reveals that the flow pulsation triggers a phase-dependent shear rate, and the ejection-sweep pattern varies with the shear rate during the pulsatile cycle. From a turbulence structure perspective, it is attributed to the changes in the geometry of hairpin vortices. An increase (decrease) in the shear rate intensifies (relaxes) these structures, leading to an increase (decrease) in the frequency of ejections and an amplification (reduction) of their percentage contribution to the total momentum flux. Furthermore, the size of the hairpin packets undergoes variations, which depend on the geometry of the constituting hairpin vortices, yet the packet inclination preserves its orientation throughout the pulsatile cycle. These observations reinforce the important role non-stationarity holds in shaping the structure of ABL turbulence and the momentum transport mechanisms it governs.

This article extends the previous investigation of the spatial evolution of energy-containing motions in wall-bounded turbulent flows (Kannadasan et al., J. Fluid Mech., vol. 955, 2023, R1) by examining their scale-interactions through spectral analysis based on the spanwise scale decomposition of turbulent kinetic energy and the Reynolds stress transport equation. The energy-containing motions located at the inflow of a turbulent channel flow are artificially removed and the interscale transport mechanisms involved in their spatial evolution are studied. This scale interaction analysis reveals the presence of a significant inverse transfer of streamwise Reynolds stress from the near-wall streaks to larger scales in the spatial evolution of energy-containing motions. This transfer is due to the spanwise variation of streamwise velocity fluctuations, represented by $\partial u'/\partial z$, which is the primary mechanism of streak instability. The analysis presented in this study also shows that the inverse cascade of spanwise energy may correspond to the regeneration of streamwise vortices in the process of reactivating the self-sustaining mechanism in the spatial evolution of energy-containing motions.

An extensive experimental investigation was undertaken to control the flow and noise characteristics influenced by vortex shedding from a circular cylinder by implementing air blowing at the base of the cylinder. The study synchronised near-field pressure and far-field noise measurements with the wake velocity field to understand the noise reduction mechanism of base blowing. Surface pressure fluctuations were measured using pressure taps distributed around the cylinder's circumference through a remote-sensing method, while velocity measurements were obtained using planar particle image velocimetry at the midspan to examine the flow dynamics. The study unveiled the crucial role of near-field pressure, particularly induced at the shoulders of the cylinder, in generating far-field noise. The rapid vertical flow movement, arising from the interaction between shear layers, was identified as a mechanism responsible for inducing surface pressure fluctuations. This phenomenon occurred as high-momentum fluid moved from the free stream into the interior of the vortex-formation region. By applying base blowing, a remarkable reduction in both near-field pressure and far-field noise was achieved at the fundamental vortex-shedding frequency, with reductions of approximately 20 and 25 dB, respectively, compared with the baseline. Additionally, base blowing caused the shear layers to roll up farther downstream than in the baseline by decreasing the entrainment of fluid-bearing opposite vorticity by the shear layer upstream of the growing vortex. Consequently, there was a substantial decrease in turbulent kinetic energy and Reynolds stress near the cylinder, resulting in slower vertical flow movement and weaker near-field pressure.

Equations relating the pressure at a horizontal seabed, the free-surface profile and the surface pressure are derived for two-dimensional irrotational steady water waves with arbitrary pressure at the free surface. Special cases include gravity, capillary, flexural and wind waves. Without approximations, we show that the free-surface recovery from the bottom pressure requires the resolution of only one first-order ordinary differential equation independent of the surface pressure, thus providing a new general recovery method valid for a broad class of water waves. Another equation provides an explicit expression for the surface pressure as a function of the bottom pressure and of the free surface. Thus, if unknown, the surface pressure can also be recovered if one extra measurement is available. This new recovery procedure is illustrated analytically for the linear approximation of a flexural–capillary–gravity wave, and numerically for fully nonlinear capillary–gravity waves.

Using low-dimensional numerical simulations, we investigate the characteristics of complex and three-dimensional surface waves in a liquid film flowing over a rotating disk, focusing on large flow rates from a nozzle. Existing integral boundary layer (IBL) models, which are based on spatially averaged variables along the direction normal to the disk surface, have primarily focused on the formation of axisymmetric waves under relatively small flow rates. In this study, an extended IBL model that accounts for both laminar and turbulent regimes is developed by considering the non-uniformity of the local flow rate in the spreading film flow and incorporating closure models dependent on the local Reynolds number. Our numerical results successfully capture the generation of concentric waves by an impinging circular liquid jet and their transition into three-dimensional solitary waves. These findings are in good agreement with visualization images and time-series data of free-surface fluctuations from a displacement sensor. The backscattering of small-scale three-dimensional turbulence into large-scale horizontal turbulence inside the film plays a critical role in determining the transition of wave modes and the nonlinear dynamics of the waves in the turbulent regime. Furthermore, the behaviour of three-dimensional waves in the downstream region, including frequent wave coalescence in the transition region and the breakup of small-scale solitons, is distinct from that of gravity-driven falling film flows. The amplitude of the three-dimensional waves is inversely related to the generalized Reynolds number defined for rotating films.

Using experiments and a depth-averaged numerical model, we study instabilities of two-phase flows in a Hele-Shaw channel with an elastic upper boundary and a non-uniform cross-section prescribed by initial collapse. Experimentally, we find increasingly complex and unsteady modes of air-finger propagation as the dimensionless bubble speed $Ca$ and level of collapse are increased, including pointed fingers, indented fingers and the feathered modes first identified by Cuttle et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 886, 2020, A20). By introducing a measure of the viscous contribution to finger propagation, we identify a $Ca$ threshold beyond which viscous forces are superseded by elastic effects. Quantitative prediction of this transition between ‘viscous’ and ‘elastic’ reopening regimes across levels of collapse establishes the fidelity of the numerical model. In the viscous regime, we recover the non-monotonic dependence on $Ca$ of the finger pressure, which is characteristic of benchtop models of airway reopening. To explore the elastic regime numerically, we extend the depth-averaged model introduced by Fontana et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 916, 2021, A27) to include an artificial disjoining pressure that prevents the unphysical self-intersection of the interface. Using time simulations, we capture for the first time the majority of experimental finger dynamics, including feathered modes. We show that these disordered states evolve continually, with no evidence of convergence to steady or periodic states. We find that the steady bifurcation structure satisfactorily predicts the bubble pressure as a function of $Ca$, but that it does not provide sufficient information to predict the transition to unsteady dynamics that appears strongly nonlinear.

We investigate systematically the free settling of a single Platonic polyhedron in an unbounded domain filled with an otherwise quiescent Newtonian fluid. We consider a particle–fluid density mimicking a rock in water. Five Platonic polyhedrons of increasing sphericity are studied for a range of Galileo numbers $10 \leqslant \mathcal {G}a \leqslant 300$. We construct a regime map in the parameter space of Galileo number and particle volume fraction ($\mathcal {G}a, \phi$), highlighting how the angularity of the Platonic polyhedron impacts its settling path and the onset of instabilities. We find that the initial angular position solely affects the transient settling process. All the Platonic polyhedrons maintain a stable settling angular position at low $\mathcal {G}a$. Higher angularity leads to path unsteadiness at lower $\mathcal {G}a$. Path instability progresses from steady vertical to unsteady vertical, followed by oblique settling observed for highly spherical particles, but helical settling (HS) for more angular particles. The particle autorotation is found to be the pivotal factor influencing path instability and the regime transition of angular particles. Beginning in the unsteady oblique and helical regimes, particle autorotation becomes more prevalent, escalating further in the chaotic regime as $\mathcal {G}a$ increases. The particle angular velocity vector is shown to be predominantly situated in the horizontal plane. A thorough force balance in the horizontal plane reveals that the Magnus force is the primary driving force of the HS regime. Additionally, we establish two new empirical correlations to predict the particle settling velocity and the disturbed wake length that solely require the physical properties of the system ($\mathcal {G}a$ and $\phi$). Our numerical results suggest that an increase of the density ratio from $2$ to $3$ exerts only a marginal impact on the path instability of the most angular particle, the settling tetrahedron.

The aeroacoustics of a boundary layer ingesting (BLI) ducted fan is investigated experimentally. The study examines a ducted fan immersed in an adverse streamwise pressure gradient turbulent boundary layer developed over a curved wall. Aeroacoustics measurements indicate that the noise from the BLI ducted fan results from a complex interaction among the fan, duct and the incoming boundary layer. The fundamental mechanisms of noise generation are explained using a general source separation strategy. A detailed noise comparison is made at varying fan rotational speeds and across a wide range of axial inflow velocities. In a low thrust regime, the noise is found to be driven by the fan loading, coupled with duct acoustics and the haystacking phenomenon. In a high thrust regime, the contribution from duct acoustics diminishes, and the noise is predominantly driven by the fan loading coupled with the haystacking phenomenon.