Mid- and far-infrared (IR) photometric and spectroscopic observations are fundamental to a full understanding of the dust-obscured Universe and the evolution of both star formation and black hole accretion in galaxies. In this work, using the specifications of the SPace Infrared telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA) as a baseline, we investigate the capability to study the dust-obscured Universe of mid- and far-IR photometry at 34 and $70\, {\rm{\mu }}\mathrm{m}$ and low-resolution spectroscopy at $17{-}36\, {\rm{\mu }}\mathrm{m}$ using the state-of-the-art Spectro-Photometric Realisations of Infrared-selected Targets at all-z (Spritz) simulation. This investigation is also compared to the expected performance of the Origins Space Telescope and the Galaxy Evolution Probe. The photometric view of the Universe of a SPICA-like mission could cover not only bright objects (e.g. $L_{IR}>10^{12}\,{\rm L}_{\odot}$ ) up to ${z}=10$ , but also normal galaxies ( $L_{IR}<10^{11}\,{\rm L}_{\odot}$ ) up to $\textit{z}\sim4$ . At the same time, the spectroscopic observations of such mission could also allow us to estimate the redshifts and study the physical properties for thousands of star-forming galaxies and active galactic nuclei by observing the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and a large set of IR nebular emission lines. In this way, a cold, 2.5-m size space telescope with spectro-photometric capability analogous to SPICA, could provide us with a complete three-dimensional (i.e. images and integrated spectra) view of the dust-obscured Universe and the physics governing galaxy evolution up to $\textit{z}\sim4$ .

Space Infrared Telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA), the cryogenic infrared space telescope recently pre-selected for a ‘Phase A’ concept study as one of the three remaining candidates for European Space Agency (ESA's) fifth medium class (M5) mission, is foreseen to include a far-infrared polarimetric imager [SPICA-POL, now called B-fields with BOlometers and Polarizers (B-BOP)], which would offer a unique opportunity to resolve major issues in our understanding of the nearby, cold magnetised Universe. This paper presents an overview of the main science drivers for B-BOP, including high dynamic range polarimetric imaging of the cold interstellar medium (ISM) in both our Milky Way and nearby galaxies. Thanks to a cooled telescope, B-BOP will deliver wide-field 100–350 $\mu$m images of linearly polarised dust emission in Stokes Q and U with a resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and both intensity and spatial dynamic ranges comparable to those achieved by Herschel images of the cold ISM in total intensity (Stokes I). The B-BOP 200 $\mu$m images will also have a factor $\sim $30 higher resolution than Planck polarisation data. This will make B-BOP a unique tool for characterising the statistical properties of the magnetised ISM and probing the role of magnetic fields in the formation and evolution of the interstellar web of dusty molecular filaments giving birth to most stars in our Galaxy. B-BOP will also be a powerful instrument for studying the magnetism of nearby galaxies and testing Galactic dynamo models, constraining the physics of dust grain alignment, informing the problem of the interaction of cosmic rays with molecular clouds, tracing magnetic fields in the inner layers of protoplanetary disks, and monitoring accretion bursts in embedded protostars.

Measurements in the infrared wavelength domain allow direct assessment of the physical state and energy balance of cool matter in space, enabling the detailed study of the processes that govern the formation and evolution of stars and planetary systems in galaxies over cosmic time. Previous infrared missions revealed a great deal about the obscured Universe, but were hampered by limited sensitivity.

SPICA takes the next step in infrared observational capability by combining a large 2.5-meter diameter telescope, cooled to below 8 K, with instruments employing ultra-sensitive detectors. A combination of passive cooling and mechanical coolers will be used to cool both the telescope and the instruments. With mechanical coolers the mission lifetime is not limited by the supply of cryogen. With the combination of low telescope background and instruments with state-of-the-art detectors SPICA provides a huge advance on the capabilities of previous missions.

SPICA instruments offer spectral resolving power ranging from R ~50 through 11 000 in the 17–230 μm domain and R ~28.000 spectroscopy between 12 and 18 μm. SPICA will provide efficient 30–37 μm broad band mapping, and small field spectroscopic and polarimetric imaging at 100, 200 and 350 μm. SPICA will provide infrared spectroscopy with an unprecedented sensitivity of ~5 × 10−20 W m−2 (5σ/1 h)—over two orders of magnitude improvement over what earlier missions. This exceptional performance leap, will open entirely new domains in infrared astronomy; galaxy evolution and metal production over cosmic time, dust formation and evolution from very early epochs onwards, the formation history of planetary systems.

The SPICA mid- and far-infrared telescope will address fundamental issues in our understanding of star formation and ISM physics in galaxies. A particular hallmark of SPICA is the outstanding sensitivity enabled by the cold telescope, optimised detectors, and wide instantaneous bandwidth throughout the mid- and far-infrared. The spectroscopic, imaging, and polarimetric observations that SPICA will be able to collect will help in clarifying the complex physical mechanisms which underlie the baryon cycle of galaxies. In particular, (i) the access to a large suite of atomic and ionic fine-structure lines for large samples of galaxies will shed light on the origin of the observed spread in star-formation rates within and between galaxies, (ii) observations of HD rotational lines (out to ~10 Mpc) and fine structure lines such as [C ii] 158 μm (out to ~100 Mpc) will clarify the main reservoirs of interstellar matter in galaxies, including phases where CO does not emit, (iii) far-infrared spectroscopy of dust and ice features will address uncertainties in the mass and composition of dust in galaxies, and the contributions of supernovae to the interstellar dust budget will be quantified by photometry and monitoring of supernova remnants in nearby galaxies, (iv) observations of far-infrared cooling lines such as [O i] 63 μm from star-forming molecular clouds in our Galaxy will evaluate the importance of shocks to dissipate turbulent energy. The paper concludes with requirements for the telescope and instruments, and recommendations for the observing strategy.

IR spectroscopy in the range 12–230 μm with the SPace IR telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics (SPICA) will reveal the physical processes governing the formation and evolution of galaxies and black holes through cosmic time, bridging the gap between the James Webb Space Telescope and the upcoming Extremely Large Telescopes at shorter wavelengths and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array at longer wavelengths. The SPICA, with its 2.5-m telescope actively cooled to below 8 K, will obtain the first spectroscopic determination, in the mid-IR rest-frame, of both the star-formation rate and black hole accretion rate histories of galaxies, reaching lookback times of 12 Gyr, for large statistically significant samples. Densities, temperatures, radiation fields, and gas-phase metallicities will be measured in dust-obscured galaxies and active galactic nuclei, sampling a large range in mass and luminosity, from faint local dwarf galaxies to luminous quasars in the distant Universe. Active galactic nuclei and starburst feedback and feeding mechanisms in distant galaxies will be uncovered through detailed measurements of molecular and atomic line profiles. The SPICA’s large-area deep spectrophotometric surveys will provide mid-IR spectra and continuum fluxes for unbiased samples of tens of thousands of galaxies, out to redshifts of z ~ 6.

The physical processes driving the chemical evolution of galaxies in the last ~ 11Gyr cannot be understood without directly probing the dust-obscured phase of star-forming galaxies and active galactic nuclei. This phase, hidden to optical tracers, represents the bulk of the star formation and black hole accretion activity in galaxies at 1 < z < 3. Spectroscopic observations with a cryogenic infrared observatory like SPICA, will be sensitive enough to peer through the dust-obscured regions of galaxies and access the rest-frame mid- to far-infrared range in galaxies at high-z. This wavelength range contains a unique suite of spectral lines and dust features that serve as proxies for the abundances of heavy elements and the dust composition, providing tracers with a feeble response to both extinction and temperature. In this work, we investigate how SPICA observations could be exploited to understand key aspects in the chemical evolution of galaxies: the assembly of nearby galaxies based on the spatial distribution of heavy element abundances, the global content of metals in galaxies reaching the knee of the luminosity function up to z ~ 3, and the dust composition of galaxies at high-z. Possible synergies with facilities available in the late 2020s are also discussed.

We describe the trends in the incidence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Lyon hospitals from January 1, 2003, through December 31, 2006. The incidence rate decreased from 1.77 cases per 100 ICU patients in 2003 to 1.16 cases per 100 ICU patients in 2006, a reduction of 38.0% (P = .05).


Future cosmology space missions will concentrate on measuring the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), which potentially carries invaluable information about the earliest phases of the evolution of our universe. Such ambitious projects will ultimately be limited by the sensitivity of the instrument and by the accuracy at which polarized foreground emission from our own Galaxy can be subtracted out. We present the PILOT balloon project which will aim at characterizing one of these foreground sources, the polarization of the dust continuum emission in the diffuse interstellar medium. The PILOT experiment will also constitute a test-bed for using multiplexed bolometer arrays for polarization measurements.


We report a preliminary study of the main focal plane instrument for the IRAIT telescope, currently being built at INAF-Astronomical Observatory of Teramo. The basic requirements are those of a remotely-controlled camera aimed to perform 10- and 20-μm photometry from Dome-C in the standard bandpasses N and Q. Starting from the site properties and the science goals, the main components of AMICA (Antarctic Mid-Infrared CAmera) are described: a Si:As BIB array detector, sensitive in the range 2–28 μm; a fully reflective optical design; a cryostat modified in order to work at the extreme environmental conditions of the antarctic plateau; a cryocooler maintaining the operating temperature of 4.2 K without external intervention; an automatized and flexible control electronics.
AMICA is designed to fully exploit the unique mid-infrared observing conditions at Dome-C.

Helioseismology and Asteroseismology have already given important contributions to stellar astrophysics, and they provide a powerful diagnostic method to improve our knowledge about the interior and evolution of star. Some experimental problems, however, such as the atmospheric scintillation, affect the precision of the measurements we can achieve. This kind of noise can ultimately be eliminated only through space-based observation, at the expense of high organization and financial costs. In the framework of a collaboration between the Solar Physics Laboratory (G28) of University of Rome La Sapienza and the Brera Astronomical Observatory of Milan-Merate, an experimental set-up has been developed to increase the signal to noise ratio of our photometric observations and reduce the scintillation noise. This system appears to be a great help in observational asteroseismology as it strongly rejects the scintillation noise while amplifies the stellar signals. Dome-C would be the best ground based site for our measurements because of its low scintillation noise level and high atmospheric stability.

The Concordia Station (Candidi 2003), on the Antarctica Plateau, will soon become one of the best observatories to perform infrared observations in the 2–20 μm atmospheric windows and beyond, thanks to its low sky background, low temperature and high atmospheric transparency. The possibility of passively cooling the telescope is a further advantage. We describe here the first permanent Antarctic infrared telescope, under development for the Dome C base. It is the International Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope (IRAIT). We briefly outline a few scientific motivations for it, then we review the technical characteristics and the status of its development. The infrared camera for IRAIT is described in another dedicated paper in this volume.

Accompanying the development of the PACS photometer camera (60–210 μm) on the Herschel Space Observatory, CEA/SAp and CEA/LETI have developed a new type of filled bolometer arrays. We present a camera using these “CCD-like” detectors for ground-based submillimeter applications. Such an instrument could potentially be operated in all atmospheric windows between 200 and 870 μm on a submillimetre-wave single-dish telescope at Dome C. A bolometer array could consist of several monolithic units of 16 × 16 pixels (as an example the blue and red PACS arrays consist of 4 × 2 and 2 × 1 units, respectively), providing a full sampling of the focal plane.

We study the potential impact of a photometric search for transiting exoplanets from Dome C. In the past year, four new transiting exoplanets have been found by ground-based surveys, including three detected by our follow-up of OGLE transit candidates with FLAMES/UVES on the VLT. Based on the experience of this survey, we have built a simulation to predict the expected number of transiting exoplanet detections from photometric searches. We apply these simulations to a possible survey based at Concordia. We find that the Antarctica location solves the two main limitations of ground-based transit surveys: the diurnal-cycle time sampling, and the hour-timescale systematic photometric variations. The expected numbers of detections are much larger than for other ground-based surveys. They show the high potential of such projects at Dome C, even with a small telescope.

PILOT (Pathfinder for an International Large Optical Telescope) is a proposed 2 m class optical/infrared telescope to be sited at Dome C on the Antarctic plateau. Recent site testing results from Dome C have shown remarkable ground level seeing, a large isoplanatic angle, and a long atmospheric coherence time. These factors significantly improve the resolution and increase the capabilities of adaptive optics systems. Additionally, the low sky emission at Dome C gives a significant increase in infrared sensitivity compared to typical mid-latitude sites. PILOT is envisaged as a winterised version of a commercially available 2 m class telescope, with a simple low cost dome (sufficient for the low ground level wind speeds), and a tip-tilt and/or a deformable secondary mirror. A number of science cameras covering the visible to the sub-millimetre are being considered.

We present the scientific case for a high resolution spectro-imager in the mid-IR that would be dedicated to the mapping of H2 emission in its four lowest rotational transitions, at 28.2, 17.0, 12.3 and 9.7 micron with a spectral resolution ~104 sufficient to provide kinematical distances in galaxies. The proposed instrument on a 2 m-class telescope will be most sensitive to H2 line emission simultaneously extended and structured at small scale, in gas at temperatures higher than 80 K. Colder H2, which may contribute most of the baryonic dark matter in galaxies, will be traced by the emission of glitters of warm H2 heated, throughout the medium, by the dissipation of omnipresent turbulence. The main scientific objectives are to (i) directly measure the mass and temperature distribution of the warm H2, far from star forming regions, in particular in low metallicity environments where the traditional tracers of H2 (CO, dust emission) fail, (ii) trace the dissipation of turbulence in the perspective of building a global view of the star formation process in galaxies and (iii) trace baryonic dark matter in the form of cold H2 in a large sample of galaxies along the Hubble sequence.

We present results of daytime site testing at Dome C in summer 2003–2004. Daytime seeing has been monitored during 2$\frac{1}{2}$ months using a DIMM on the bright star Canopus, giving median value of 0.54 arcsec. An every-day best seeing period has been observed around 5 pm with seeing around 0.3 arcsec. First isoplanatic angle measurements, based on stellar scintillation, were also performed during the month of January 2004, and have given median value of 6.8 arcsec.


The ClOVER instrument (described elsewhere in this volume) is being built to measure the B-mode polarisation of the Cosmic Microwave Background. Each of the 256 pixels is made up a pseudo-correlation receiver that can be realised using either waveguide or microstrip technology. In this work we present a design study for a possible waveguide-based solution. Each of the individual components has been optimised using electromagnetic finite-element modelling software (HFSS).

We launched a program to recover cosmic dust (micrometeorites) from Dome C surface snow near the French-Italian station CONCORDIA. The Dome C snow is uniquely shielded from both morainic debris and aeolian dust within the micrometeorite size range (≥25 μm). The average temperature at Dome C ranges from -20°C to -75°C throughout the year. Once trapped in a cold and clean snow, the micrometeorites are expected to stay much better preserved from mechanical constraints and less altered by terrestrial weathering than those of previous collections (mainly from Antarctic blue ice fields). We carried out 2 field expeditions in January 2000 and January 2002 using a new collection technique at Dome C. We successfully recovered micrometeorites from surface snow layers. By contrast with previous collections of micrometeorites, the particles from the CONCORDIA-Collection have suffered very little from terrestrial weathering. They have well constrained terrestrial ages. Their periods of fall overlap the ones of the particles found in the stratospheric interplanetary dust collections (IDPs) made by NASA. Because the precipitation rate is extremely low at Dome C, it is technically possible to exploit large areas (several tens of m2 year) of annual snow layers formed up to 3 centuries ago, which allows searching for cometary particles from historical meteor showers.

Recent advances in bolometric detector technology have allowed submillimetre (submm) wavelength measurements to contribute important data to some of the most challenging questions in observational cosmology. The availability of large-format filled-array cameras during the next decade, however, promises to provide far-infrared (FIR) to millimetre (mm) observations with unprecedented imaging fidelity. The simultaneous increase in the telescope collecting area of new facilities, and their location at ground-based sites with the highest atmospheric transmission will provide observational data with greater sensitivity and resolution. With the opening of the Italian/French Concordia station at Dome C in Antarctica there is now an exciting opportunity to make unique FIR–submm wavelength observations (200–850 μm) through atmospheric windows that are almost open to space. The development of submm astronomy from Dome-C, undertaken with a phased-programme of increasingly larger telescopes, will make critical observations of the high-redshift universe. In particular, we argue that a long-term strategy for Dome C should include plans to construct a 30-m telescope with a large field-of-view (≥0.1 sq deg), designed and optimized to operate at ~200 μm. With such a single-dish facility it will be possible to resolve 100% of the population of galaxies that contribute to the integrated FIR-submm extragalactic background. In this paper we describe how a large-aperture submm telescope at Dome C will provide unique data to address fundamental questions and killer science regarding the evolutionary history, nature and large-scale distribution of the population of high-redshift optically-obscured starburst galaxies

The high Antarctic plateau is considered as the best observing site on Earth in the sub-mm and mm bands. Dome C is one of the most elevated all-year-round station in this continent. Due to its peculiar location, it is also characterized by low wind speeds and very low precipitable water vapor contents. Some experiments have been brought there since 1995 and some ancillary data have been recorded. We report here the actual status of the site quality knowledge in the sub-mm and mm bands.