Clinical presentations of endocrine diseases

Chapter 1 - Clinical presentations of endocrine diseases

from Section I - Clinical approaches

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 April 2017

Karen Gomez-Hernandez and

Shereen Ezzat

Edited by

Ozgur Mete and

Sylvia L. Asa

Show author details

Ozgur Mete: Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Sylvia L. Asa: Affiliation:
University of Toronto

Book contents

Get access

Type: Chapter
Information: Endocrine Pathology , pp. 1 - 55

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Vance, ML. 1994 Hypopituitarism N Engl J Med 330:1651–1662.Google Scholar

Lyle, TK, Clover, P. 1961 Ocular symptoms and signs in pituitary tumours Proc R Soc Med 54:611–619.Google Scholar

Kirkham, TH. 1972 The ocular symptomatology of pituitary tumours Proc R Soc Med 65:517–518.Google Scholar

Keane, JR. 1996 Cavernous sinus syndrome. Analysis of 151 cases Arch Neurol 53:967–971.Google Scholar

Fernandez, S, Godino, O, Martinez-Yelamos, S, Mesa, E, Arruga, J, Ramon, JM, Acebes, JJ, Rubio, F. 2007 Cavernous sinus syndrome: a series of 126 patients Medicine (Baltimore) 86:278–281.Google Scholar

Kim, SH, Lee, KC. 2007 Cranial nerve palsies accompanying pituitary tumour J Clin Neurosci 14:1158–1162.Google Scholar

Kattah, JC, Silgals, RM, Manz, H, Toro, JG, Dritschilo, A, Smith, FP. 1985 Presentation and management of parasellar and suprasellar metastatic mass lesions J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 48:44–49.Google Scholar

Ariel, D, Sung, H, Coghlan, N, Dodd, R, Gibbs, IC, Katznelson, L. 2013 Clinical characteristics and pituitary dysfunction in patients with metastatic cancer to the sella Endocr Pract 19:914–919.Google Scholar

Deepak, D, Daousi, C, Javadpour, M, MacFarlane, IA. 2007 Macroprolactinomas and epilepsy Clin Endocrinol (Oxford) 66: 503–507.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Reuter, U, Mehraein, S, Arnold, G, Lehmann, R. 1997 Neurological picture. A “giant” prolactinoma J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 63: 295.Google Scholar

Ezzat, S, Asa, SL, Couldwell, WT, Barr, CE, Dodge, WE, Vance, ML, McCutcheon, IE. 2004 The prevalence of pituitary adenomas: a systematic review Cancer 101: 613–619.Google Scholar

Ascoli, P, Cavagnini, F. 2006 Hypopituitarism Pituitary 9: 335–342.Google Scholar

Toogood, AA, Stewart, PM. 2008 Hypopituitarism: clinical features, diagnosis, and management Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 37: 235–261, x.Google Scholar

Rothman, MS, Wierman, ME. 2008 Female hypogonadism: evaluation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis Pituitary 11: 163–169.Google Scholar

Silveira, LF, Latronico, AC. 2013 Approach to the patient with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98: 1781–1788.Google Scholar

Bhasin, S, Cunningham, GR, Hayes, FJ, Matsumoto, AM, Snyder, PJ, Swerdloff, RS, Montori, VM. 2010 Testosterone therapy in men with androgen deficiency syndromes: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2536–2559.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nachtigall, LB, Boepple, PA, Pralong, FP, Crowley, WF Jr. 1997 Adult-onset idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: a treatable form of male infertility N Engl J Med 336:410–415.Google Scholar

Isidori, AM, Giannetta, E, Lenzi, A. 2008 Male hypogonadism Pituitary 11:171–180.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Salenave, S, Trabado, S, Maione, L, Brailly-Tabard, S, Young, J. 2012 Male acquired hypogonadotropic hypogonadism: diagnosis and treatment Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 73:141–146.Google Scholar

Tajar, A, Huhtaniemi, IT, O'Neill, TW, Finn, JD, Pye, SR, Lee, DM, Bartfai, G, Boonen, S, Casanueva, FF, Forti, G, Giwercman, A, Han, TS, Kula, K, Labrie, F, Lean, ME, Pendleton, N, Punab, M, Vanderschueren, D, Wu, FC. 2012 Characteristics of androgen deficiency in late-onset hypogonadism: results from the European Male Aging Study (EMAS) J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:1508–1516.Google Scholar

Growth Hormone Research Society. 2000 Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of growth hormone (GH) deficiency in childhood and adolescence: summary statement of the GH Research Society. GH Research Society J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3990–3993.Google Scholar

Growth Hormone Research Society. 1998 Consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of adults with growth hormone deficiency: summary statement of the Growth Hormone Research Society Workshop on Adult Growth Hormone Deficiency J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:379–381.Google Scholar

Ohlsson, C, Bengtsson, BA, Isaksson, OG, Andreassen, TT, Slootweg, MC. 1998 Growth hormone and bone Endocr Rev 19:55–79.Google Scholar

Colao, A, Di Somma, C, Spiezia, S, Rota, F, Pivonello, R, Savastano, S, Lombardi, G. 2006 The natural history of partial growth hormone deficiency in adults: a prospective study on the cardiovascular risk and atherosclerosis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2191–2200.Google Scholar

Murray, RD, Bidlingmaier, M, Strasburger, CJ, Shalet, SM. 2007 The diagnosis of partial growth hormone deficiency in adults with a putative insult to the hypothalamo–pituitary axis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:1705–1709.Google Scholar

Lombardi, G, Di Somma, C, Grasso, LF, Savanelli, MC, Colao, A, Pivonello, R. 2012 The cardiovascular system in growth hormone excess and growth hormone deficiency J Endocrinol Invest 35:1021–1029.Google Scholar

Molitch, ME, Clemmons, DR, Malozowski, S, Merriam, GR, Vance, ML. 2011 Evaluation and treatment of adult growth hormone deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:1587–1609.Google Scholar

Melmed, S. 2013 Idiopathic adult growth hormone deficiency J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:2187–2197.Google Scholar

Blum, WF, Shavrikova, EP, Edwards, DJ, Rosilio, M, Hartman, ML, Marin, F, Valle, D, van der Lely, AJ, Attanasio, AF, Strasburger, CJ, Henrich, G, Herschbach, P. 2003 Decreased quality of life in adult patients with growth hormone deficiency compared with general populations using the new, validated, self-weighted questionnaire, questions on life satisfaction hypopituitarism module J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:4158–4167.Google Scholar

Aimaretti, G, Corneli, G, Razzore, P, Bellone, S, Baffoni, C, Arvat, E, Camanni, F, Ghigo, E. 1998 Comparison between insulin-induced hypoglycemia and growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone + arginine as provocative tests for the diagnosis of GH deficiency in adults J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1615–1618.Google Scholar

Hoeck, HC, Vestergaard, P, Jakobsen, PE, Falhof, J, Laurberg, P. 2000 Diagnosis of growth hormone (GH) deficiency in adults with hypothalamic–pituitary disorders: comparison of test results using pyridostigmine plus GH-releasing hormone (GHRH), clonidine plus GHRH, and insulin-induced hypoglycemia as GH secretagogues J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:1467–1472.Google Scholar

Biller, BM, Samuels, MH, Zagar, A, Cook, DM, Arafah, BM, Bonert, V, Stavrou, S, Kleinberg, DL, Chipman, JJ, Hartman, ML. 2002 Sensitivity and specificity of six tests for the diagnosis of adult GH deficiency J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:2067–2079.Google Scholar

Hartman, ML, Crowe, BJ, Biller, BM, Ho, KK, Clemmons, DR, Chipman, JJ. 2002 Which patients do not require a GH stimulation test for the diagnosis of adult GH deficiency? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:477–485.Google Scholar

Lania, A, Persani, L, Beck-Peccoz, P. 2008 Central hypothyroidism Pituitary 11:181–186.Google Scholar

Persani, L. 2012 Clinical review: central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:3068–3078.Google Scholar

Spencer, CA, LoPresti, JS, Patel, A, Guttler, RB, Eigen, A, Shen, D, Gray, D, Nicoloff, JT. 1990 Applications of a new chemiluminometric thyrotropin assay to subnormal measurement J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70:453–460.Google Scholar

Baloch, Z, Carayon, P, Conte-Devolx, B, Demers, LM, Feldt-Rasmussen, U, Henry, JF, LiVosli, VA, Niccoli-Sire, P, John, R, Ruf, J, Smyth, PP, Spencer, CA, Stockigt, JR. 2003 Laboratory medicine practice guidelines. Laboratory support for the diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease Thyroid 13:3–126.Google Scholar

Beressi, N, Beressi, JP, Cohen, R, Modigliani, E. 1999 Lymphocytic hypophysitis. A review of 145 cases Ann Med Intern (Paris) 150:327–341.Google Scholar

Grossman, AB. 2010 Clinical review: the diagnosis and management of central hypoadrenalism J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4855–4863.Google Scholar

Hagg, E, Asplund, K, Lithner, F. 1987 Value of basal plasma cortisol assays in the assessment of pituitary–adrenal insufficiency Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 26:221–226.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pavord, SR, Girach, A, Price, DE, Absalom, SR, Falconer-Smith, J, Howlett, TA. 1992 A retrospective audit of the combined pituitary function test, using the insulin stress test, TRH and GnRH in a district laboratory Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 36:135–139.Google Scholar

Courtney, CH, McAllister, AS, McCance, DR, Bell, PM, Hadden, DR, Leslie, H, Sheridan, B, Atkinson, AB. 2000 Comparison of one week 0900 h serum cortisol, low and standard dose synacthen tests with a 4 to 6 week insulin hypoglycaemia test after pituitary surgery in assessing HPA axis Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 53:431–436.Google Scholar

Inder, WJ, Hunt, PJ. 2002 Glucocorticoid replacement in pituitary surgery: guidelines for perioperative assessment and management J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:2745–2750.Google Scholar

Mukherjee, A, Murray, RD, Columb, B, Gleeson, HK, Shalet, SM. 2003 Acquired prolactin deficiency indicates severe hypopituitarism in patients with disease of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 59:743–748.Google Scholar

Toledano, Y, Lubetsky, A, Shimon, I. 2007 Acquired prolactin deficiency in patients with disorders of the hypothalamic–pituitary axis J Endocrinol Invest 30:268–273.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kauppila, A, Chatelain, P, Kirkinen, P, Kivinen, S, Ruokonen, A. 1987 Isolated prolactin deficiency in a woman with puerperal alactogenesis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64:309–312.Google Scholar

Saito, T, Tojo, K, Oki, Y, Sakamoto, N, Matsudaira, T, Sasaki, T, Tajima, N. 2007 A case of prolactin deficiency with familial puerperal alactogenesis accompanying impaired ACTH secretion Endocr J 54:59–62.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zargar, AH, Masoodi, SR, Laway, BA, Shah, NA, Salahudin, M. 1997 Familial puerperal alactogenesis: possibility of a genetically transmitted isolated prolactin deficiency Br J Obstet Gynaecol 104:629–631.Google Scholar

DeLellis, RA, Lloyd, RV, Heitz, PU, Eng, C, eds. World Health Organization Classification of Tumours: Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of Endocrine Organs. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2004.Google Scholar

Yamada, S, Ohyama, K, Taguchi, M, Takeshita, A, Morita, K, Takano, K, Sano, T. 2007 A study of the correlation between morphological findings and biological activities in clinically nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas Neurosurgery 61:580–584; discussion 4–5.Google Scholar

Snyder, PJ. 1985 Gonadotroph cell adenomas of the pituitary Endocr Rev 6:552–563.Google Scholar

Young, WF Jr., Scheithauer, BW, Kovacs, KT, Horvath, E, Davis, DH, Randall, RV. 1996 Gonadotroph adenoma of the pituitary gland: a clinicopathologic analysis of 100 cases Mayo Clin Proc 71:649–656.Google Scholar

Dekkers, OM, Pereira, AM, Romijn, JA. 2008 Treatment and follow-up of clinically nonfunctioning pituitary macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:3717–3726.Google Scholar

Arafah, BM, Nekl, KE, Gold, RS, Selman, WR. 1995 Dynamics of prolactin secretion in patients with hypopituitarism and pituitary macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3507–3512.Google Scholar PubMed

Bevan, JS, Burke, CW, Esiri, MM, Adams, CB. 1987 Misinterpretation of prolactin levels leading to management errors in patients with sellar enlargement Am J Med 82:29–32.Google Scholar

Karavitaki, N, Thanabalasingham, G, Shore, HC, Trifanescu, R, Ansorge, O, Meston, N, Turner, HE, Wass, JA. 2006 Do the limits of serum prolactin in disconnection hyperprolactinaemia need re-definition? A study of 226 patients with histologically verified non-functioning pituitary macroadenoma Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65:524–529.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Horvath, E, Kovacs, K, Smyth, HS, Cusimano, M, Singer, W. 2005 Silent adenoma subtype 3 of the pituitary–immunohistochemical and ultrastructural classification: a review of 29 cases Ultrastruct Pathol 29:511–524.Google Scholar

Alahmadi, H, Lee, D, Wilson, JR, Hayhurst, C, Mete, O, Gentili, F, Asa, SL, Zadeh, G. 2012 Clinical features of silent corticotroph adenomas Acta Neurochir (Wien) 154:1493–1498.Google Scholar

Snyder, PJ, Muzyka, R, Johnson, J, Utiger, RD. 1980 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone provokes abnormal follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone responses in men who have pituitary adenomas and FSH hypersecretion J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51:744–748.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Daneshdoost, L, Gennarelli, TA, Bashey, HM, Savino, PJ, Sergott, RC, Bosley, TM, Snyder, PJ. 1993 Identification of gonadotroph adenomas in men with clinically nonfunctioning adenomas by the luteinizing hormone beta subunit response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1352–1355.Google Scholar PubMed

Freda, PU, Beckers, AM, Katznelson, L, Molitch, ME, Montori, VM, Post, KD, Vance, ML. 2011 Pituitary incidentaloma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:894–904.Google Scholar

Sanno, N, Oyama, K, Tahara, S, Teramoto, A, Kato, Y. 2003 A survey of pituitary incidentaloma in Japan Eur J Endocrinol 149:123–127.Google Scholar

Chanson, P, Brochier, S. 2005 Non-functioning pituitary adenomas J Endocrinol Invest 28:93–99.Google Scholar

Cho, HY, Cho, SW, Kim, SW, Shin, CS, Park, KS, Kim, SY. 2010 Silent corticotroph adenomas have unique recurrence characteristics compared with other nonfunctioning pituitary adenomas Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72:648–653.Google Scholar

Ciccarelli, A, Daly, AF, Beckers, A. 2005 The epidemiology of prolactinomas Pituitary 8:3–6.Google Scholar

Freeman, ME, Kanyicska, B, Lerant, A, Nagy, G. 2000 Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion Physiol Rev 80:1523–1631.Google Scholar

Delgrange, E, Trouillas, J, Maiter, D, Donckier, J, Tourniaire, J. 1997 Sex-related difference in the growth of prolactinomas: a clinical and proliferation marker study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:2102–2107.Google Scholar

Klibanski, A, Neer, RM, Beitins, IZ, Ridgway, EC, Zervas, NT, McArthur, JW. 1980 Decreased bone density in hyperprolactinemic women N Engl J Med 303:1511–1514.Google Scholar

Schlechte, J, el-Khoury, G, Kathol, M, Walkner, L. 1987 Forearm and vertebral bone mineral in treated and untreated hyperprolactinemic amenorrhea J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64:1021–1026.Google Scholar

Casanueva, FF, Molitch, ME, Schlechte, JA, Abs, R, Bonert, V, Bronstein, MD, Brue, T, Cappabianca, P, Colao, A, Fahlbusch, R, Fideleff, H, Hadani, M, Kelly, P, Kleinberg, D, Laws, E, Marek, J, Scanlon, M, Sobrinho, LG, Wass, JA, Giustina, A. 2006 Guidelines of the Pituitary Society for the diagnosis and management of prolactinomas Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65:265–273.Google Scholar

Fainstein Day, P, Glerean, M, Lovazzano, S, Pietrani, M, Christiansen, S, Balzaretti, M, Kozak, A, Carrizo, A. 2010 Gender differences in macroprolactinomas: study of clinical features, outcome of patients and ki-67 expression in tumor tissue Front Horm Res 38:50–58.Google Scholar

Carter, JN, Tyson, JE, Tolis, G, Van Vliet, S, Faiman, C, Friesen, HG. 1978 Prolactin-screening tumors and hypogonadism in 22 men N Engl J Med 299:847–852.Google Scholar

Iglesias, P, Bernal, C, Villabona, C, Castro, JC, Arrieta, F, Diez, JJ. 2012 Prolactinomas in men: a multicentre and retrospective analysis of treatment outcome Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 77:281–287.CrossRef Google Scholar

Mazziotti, G, Porcelli, T, Mormando, M, De Menis, E, Bianchi, A, Mejia, C, Mancini, T, De Marinis, L, Giustina, A. 2011 Vertebral fractures in males with prolactinoma Endocrine 39:288–293.Google Scholar

Child, DF, Nader, S, Mashiter, K, Kjeld, M, Banks, L, Fraser, TR. 1975 Prolactin studies in “functionless” pituitary tumours Br Med J 1:604–606.Google Scholar

Mancini, T, Casanueva, FF, Giustina, A. 2008 Hyperprolactinemia and prolactinomas Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 37:67–99, viii.Google Scholar

Molitch, ME. 2005 Medication-induced hyperprolactinemia Mayo Clinic proceedings 80:1050–1057.Google Scholar

Delgrange, E, de Hertogh, R, Vankrieken, L, Maiter, D. 1996 Potential hook effect in prolactin assay in patients with giant prolactinoma Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 45:506–507.Google Scholar

Frieze, TW, Mong, DP, Koops, MK. 2002 “Hook effect” in prolactinomas: case report and review of literature Endocr Pract 8:296–303.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Randall, RV, Scheithauer, BW, Laws, ER Jr., Abbound, CF, Ebersold, MJ, Kao, PC. 1985 Pituitary adenomas associated with hyperprolactinemia: a clinical and immunohistochemical study of 97 patients operated on transsphenoidally Mayo Clinic Proc 60:753–762.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

de Herder, WW. 2009 Acromegaly and gigantism in the medical literature. Case descriptions in the era before and the early years after the initial publication of Pierre Marie (1886) Pituitary 12:236–244.Google Scholar

Cushing, H. 1909 III. Partial hypophysectomy for acromegaly: with remarks on the function of the hypophysis Ann Surg 50:1002–1017.Google Scholar

Mestron, A, Webb, SM, Astorga, R, Benito, P, Catala, M, Gaztambide, S, Gomez, JM, Halperin, I, Lucas-Morante, T, Moreno, B, Obiols, G, de Pablos, P, Paramo, C, Pico, A, Torres, E, Varela, C, Vazquez, JA, Zamora, J, Albareda, M, Gilabert, M. 2004 Epidemiology, clinical characteristics, outcome, morbidity and mortality in acromegaly based on the Spanish Acromegaly Registry (Registro Espanol de Acromegalia, REA) Eur J Endocrinol 151:439–446.Google Scholar

Holdaway, IM, Rajasoorya, C. 1999 Epidemiology of acromegaly Pituitary 2:29–41.Google Scholar

Ezzat, S, Forster, MJ, Berchtold, P, Redelmeier, DA, Boerlin, V, Harris, AG. 1994 Acromegaly. Clinical and biochemical features in 500 patients Medicine (Baltimore) 73:233–240.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Freda, PU, Chung, WK, Matsuoka, N, Walsh, JE, Kanibir, MN, Kleinman, G, Wang, Y, Bruce, JN, Post, KD. 2007 Analysis of GNAS mutations in 60 growth hormone secreting pituitary tumors: correlation with clinical and pathological characteristics and surgical outcome based on highly sensitive GH and IGF-I criteria for remission Pituitary 10:275–282.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Chahal, HS, Stals, K, Unterlander, M, Balding, DJ, Thomas, MG, Kumar, AV, Besser, GM, Atkinson, AB, Morrison, PJ, Howlett, TA, Levy, MJ, Orme, SM, Akker, SA, Abel, RL, Grossman, AB, Burger, J, Ellard, S, Korbonits, M. 2011 AIP mutation in pituitary adenomas in the 18th century and today N Engl J Med 364:43–50.Google Scholar

Bertherat, J, Horvath, A, Groussin, L, Grabar, S, Boikos, S, Cazabat, L, Libe, R, Rene-Corail, F, Stergiopoulos, S, Bourdeau, I, Bei, T, Clauser, E, Calender, A, Kirschner, LS, Bertagna, X, Carney, JA, Stratakis, CA. 2009 Mutations in regulatory subunit type 1A of cyclic adenosine 5′-monophosphate-dependent protein kinase (PRKAR1A): phenotype analysis in 353 patients and 80 different genotypes J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:2085–2091.Google Scholar

Stratakis, CA, Tichomirowa, MA, Boikos, S, Azevedo, MF, Lodish, M, Martari, M, Verma, S, Daly, AF, Raygada, M, Keil, MF, Papademetriou, J, Drori-Herishanu, L, Horvath, A, Tsang, KM, Nesterova, M, Franklin, S, Vanbellinghen, JF, Bours, V, Salvatori, R, Beckers, A. 2010 The role of germline AIP, MEN1, PRKAR1A, CDKN1B and CDKN2C mutations in causing pituitary adenomas in a large cohort of children, adolescents, and patients with genetic syndromes Clin Genet 78:457–463.Google Scholar

Cuny, T, Pertuit, M, Sahnoun-Fathallah, M, Daly, A, Occhi, G, Odou, MF, Tabarin, A, Nunes, ML, Delemer, B, Rohmer, V, Desailloud, R, Kerlan, V, Chabre, O, Sadoul, JL, Cogne, M, Caron, P, Cortet-Rudelli, C, Lienhardt, A, Raingeard, I, Guedj, AM, Brue, T, Beckers, A, Weryha, G, Enjalbert, A, Barlier, A. 2013 Genetic analysis in young patients with sporadic pituitary macroadenomas: besides AIP don't forget MEN1 genetic analysis Eur J Endocrinol 168:533–541.Google Scholar

Xekouki, P, Pacak, K, Almeida, M, Wassif, CA, Rustin, P, Nesterova, M, de la Luz, Sierra, M, Matro, J, Ball, E, Azevedo, M, Horvath, A, Lyssikatos, C, Quezado, M, Patronas, N, Ferrando, B, Pasini, B, Lytras, A, Tolis, G, Stratakis, CA. 2012 Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) D subunit (SDHD) inactivation in a growth-hormone-producing pituitary tumor: a new association for SDH? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:E357–366.Google Scholar

Cheng, S, Al-Agha, R, Araujo, PB, Serri, O, Asa, SL, Ezzat, S. 2013 Metabolic glucose status and pituitary pathology portend therapeutic outcomes in acromegaly PLOS ONE 8:e73543.Google Scholar

Larkin, S, Reddy, R, Karavitaki, N, Cudlip, S, Wass, J, Ansorge, O. 2013 Granulation pattern, but not GSP or GHR mutation, is associated with clinical characteristics in somatostatin-naive patients with somatotroph adenomas Eur J Endocrinol 168:491–499.Google Scholar

Bhayana, S, Booth, GL, Asa, SL, Kovacs, K, Ezzat, S. 2005 The implication of somatotroph adenoma phenotype to somatostatin analog responsiveness in acromegaly J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:6290–6295.Google Scholar

Felix, IA, Horvath, E, Kovacs, K, Smyth, HS, Killinger, DW, Vale, J. 1986 Mammosomatotroph adenoma of the pituitary associated with gigantism and hyperprolactinemia. A morphological study including immunoelectron microscopy Acta Neuropathol 71:76–82.Google Scholar

Pack, SD, Kirschner, LS, Pak, E, Zhuang, Z, Carney, JA, Stratakis, CA. 2000 Genetic and histologic studies of somatomammotropic pituitary tumors in patients with the “complex of spotty skin pigmentation, myxomas, endocrine overactivity and schwannomas” (Carney complex) J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3860–3865.Google Scholar

Kurtkaya-Yapicier, O, Scheithauer, BW, Carney, JA, Kovacs, K, Horvath, E, Stratakis, CA, Vidal, S, Vella, A, Young, WF Jr., Atkinson, JL, Lloyd, RV, Kontogeorgos, G. 2002 Pituitary adenoma in Carney complex: an immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and immunoelectron microscopic study Ultrastruct Pathol 26:345–353.Google Scholar

Boikos, SA, Stratakis, CA. 2006 Pituitary pathology in patients with Carney complex: growth-hormone producing hyperplasia or tumors and their association with other abnormalities Pituitary 9:203–209.Google Scholar

Kovacs, K, Horvath, E, Thorner, MO, Rogol, AD. 1984 Mammosomatotroph hyperplasia associated with acromegaly and hyperprolactinemia in a patient with the McCune–Albright syndrome. A histologic, immunocytologic and ultrastructural study of the surgically-removed adenohypophysis Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 403:77–86.Google Scholar

Vortmeyer, AO, Gläsker, S, Mehta, GU, Abu-Asab, MS, Smith, JH, Zhuang, Z, Collins, MT, Oldfield, EH. 2012 Somatic GNAS mutation causes widespread and diffuse pituitary disease in acromegalic patients with McCune–Albright syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:2404–2413.Google Scholar

Sano, T, Asa, SL, Kovacs, K. 1988 Growth hormone-releasing hormone-producing tumors: clinical, biochemical, and morphological manifestations Endocr Rev 9:357–373.Google Scholar

Garby, L, Caron, P, Claustrat, F, Chanson, P, Tabarin, A, Rohmer, V, Arnault, G, Bonnet, F, Chabre, O, Christin-Maitre, S, du-Boullay, H, Murat, A, Nakib, I, Sadoul, JL, Sassolas, G, Claustrat, B, Raverot, G, Borson-Chazot, F. 2012 Clinical characteristics and outcome of acromegaly induced by ectopic secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): a French nationwide series of 21 cases J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:2093–2104.Google Scholar

Maheshwari, HG, Prezant, TR, Herman-Bonert, V, Shahinian, H, Kovacs, K, Melmed, S. 2000 Long-acting peptidomimergic control of gigantism caused by pituitary acidophilic stem cell adenoma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3409–3416.Google Scholar

Horvath, E, Kovacs, K. 2006 Pathology of acromegaly Neuroendocrinology 83:161–165.Google Scholar

Horvath, E, Kovacs, K, Singer, W, Smyth, HS, Killinger, DW, Erzin, C, Weiss, MH. 1981 Acidophil stem cell adenoma of the human pituitary: clinicopathologic analysis of 15 cases Cancer 47:761–771.Google Scholar

Lim, JS, Ku, CR, Lee, MK, Kim, TS, Kim, SH, Lee, EJ. 2010 A case of fugitive acromegaly, initially presented as invasive prolactinoma Endocrine 38:1–5.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Isidro, ML, Iglesias Diaz, P, Matias-Guiu, X, Cordido, F. 2005 Acromegaly due to a growth hormone-releasing hormone-secreting intracranial gangliocytoma J Endocrinol Invest 28:162–165.Google Scholar

Asa, SL, Scheithauer, BW, Bilbao, JM, Horvath, E, Ryan, N, Kovacs, K, Randall, RV, Laws, ER Jr., Singer, W, Linfoot, JA, et al. 1984 A case for hypothalamic acromegaly: a clinicopathological study of six patients with hypothalamic gangliocytomas producing growth hormone-releasing factor J Clin Endocrinol Metab 58:796–803.Google Scholar

Loeper, S, Ezzat, S. 2008 Acromegaly: re-thinking the cancer risk Rev Endocr Metab Disord 9:41–58.Google Scholar

Renehan, AG, Brennan, BM. 2008 Acromegaly, growth hormone and cancer risk Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:639–657.Google Scholar

dos Santos, MC, Nascimento, GC, Nascimento, AG, Carvalho, VC, Lopes, MH, Montenegro, R, Montenegro, R Jr., Vilar, L, Albano, MF, Alves, AR, Parente, CV, dos Santos Faria, M. 2013 Thyroid cancer in patients with acromegaly: a case–control study Pituitary 16:109–114.Google Scholar

Dagdelen, S, Cinar, N, Erbas, T. 2013 Increased thyroid cancer risk in acromegaly Pituitary 16:195–201.Google Scholar

Renehan, AG, O'Connell, J, O'Halloran, D, Shanahan, F, Potten, CS, O'Dwyer, ST, Shalet, SM. 2003 Acromegaly and colorectal cancer: a comprehensive review of epidemiology, biological mechanisms, and clinical implications Horm Metab Res 35:712–725.Google Scholar

Kauppinen-Makelin, R, Sane, T, Valimaki, MJ, Markkanen, H, Niskanen, L, Ebeling, T, Jaatinen, P, Juonala, M, Pukkala, E. 2010 Increased cancer incidence in acromegaly: a nationwide survey Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72:278–279.Google Scholar

Molitch, ME. 1992 Clinical manifestations of acromegaly Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 21:597–614.Google Scholar

Kaltsas, GA, Mukherjee, JJ, Jenkins, PJ, Satta, MA, Islam, N, Monson, JP, Besser, GM, Grossman, AB. 1999 Menstrual irregularity in women with acromegaly J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:2731–2735.Google Scholar

Galdiero, M, Pivonello, R, Grasso, LF, Cozzolino, A, Colao, A. 2012 Growth hormone, prolactin, and sexuality J Endocrinol Invest 35:782–794.Google Scholar

Celik, O, Hatipoglu, E, Akhan, SE, Uludag, S, Kadioglu, P. 2013 Acromegaly is associated with higher frequency of female sexual dysfunction: experience of a single center Endocr J 60:753–761.Google Scholar

Kamenicky, P, Blanchard, A, Gauci, C, Salenave, S, Letierce, A, Lombes, M, Brailly-Tabard, S, Azizi, M, Prie, D, Souberbielle, JC, Chanson, P. 2012 Pathophysiology of renal calcium handling in acromegaly: what lies behind hypercalciuria? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:2124–2133.Google Scholar

Freda, PU. 2003 Pitfalls in the biochemical assessment of acromegaly Pituitary 6:135–140.Google Scholar

Sata, A, Ho, KK. 2007 Growth hormone measurements in the diagnosis and monitoring of acromegaly Pituitary 10:165–172.Google Scholar

Katznelson, L, Atkinson, JL, Cook, DM, Ezzat, SZ, Hamrahian, AH, Miller, KK. 2011 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Medical Guidelines for Clinical Practice for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acromegaly: 2011 update: executive summary Endocr Pract 17:636–646.Google Scholar

Schofl, C, Franz, H, Grussendorf, M, Honegger, J, Jaursch-Hancke, C, Mayr, B, Schopohl, J. 2013 Long-term outcome in patients with acromegaly: analysis of 1344 patients from the German Acromegaly Register Eur J Endocrinol 168:39–47.Google Scholar

Bourdelot, A, Coste, J, Hazebroucq, V, Gaillard, S, Cazabat, L, Bertagna, X, Bertherat, J. 2004 Clinical, hormonal and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) predictors of transsphenoidal surgery outcome in acromegaly Eur J Endocrinol 150:763–771.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lonser, RR, Kindzelski, BA, Mehta, GU, Jane, JA Jr., Oldfield, EH. 2010 Acromegaly without imaging evidence of pituitary adenoma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4192–4196.Google Scholar

Cushing, HW. 1912 The Pituitary Body and its Disorders. Clinical States Produced by Disorders of the Hypophysis Cerebri. An Amplification of the Harvey Lecture for December, 1910. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott.Google Scholar

Cushing, H. 1994 The basophil adenomas of the pituitary body and their clinical manifestations (pituitary basophilism) 1932 Obes Res 2:486–508.Google Scholar

Bertagna, X, Groussin, L, Luton, JP, Bertherat, J. 2003 Aberrant receptor-mediated Cushing's syndrome Horm Res 59(suppl 1):99–103.Google Scholar

Lindholm, J, Juul, S, Jorgensen, JO, Astrup, J, Bjerre, P, Feldt-Rasmussen, U, Hagen, C, Jorgensen, J, Kosteljanetz, M, Kristensen, L, Laurberg, P, Schmidt, K, Weeke, J. 2001 Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing's syndrome: a population-based study J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:117–123.Google Scholar

Steffensen, C, Bak, AM, Rubeck, KZ, Jorgensen, JO. 2010 Epidemiology of Cushing's syndrome Neuroendocrinology 92(suppl 1):1–5.Google Scholar

Valassi, E, Santos, A, Yaneva, M, Toth, M, Strasburger, CJ, Chanson, P, Wass, JA, Chabre, O, Pfeifer, M, Feelders, RA, Tsagarakis, S, Trainer, PJ, Franz, H, Zopf, K, Zacharieva, S, Lamberts, SW, Tabarin, A, Webb, SM. 2011 The European Registry on Cushing's syndrome: 2-year experience. Baseline demographic and clinical characteristics Eur J Endocrinol 165:383–392.Google Scholar

Katznelson, L, Bogan, JS, Trob, JR, Schoenfeld, DA, Hedley-Whyte, ET, Hsu, DW, Zervas, NT, Swearingen, B, Sleeper, M, Klibanski, A. 1998 Biochemical assessment of Cushing's disease in patients with corticotroph macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1619–1623.Google Scholar

George, DH, Scheithauer, BW, Kovacs, K, Horvath, E, Young, WF Jr., Lloyd, RV, Meyer, FB. 2003 Crooke's cell adenoma of the pituitary: an aggressive variant of corticotroph adenoma Am J Surg Pathol 27:1330–1336.Google Scholar

Kovacs, K, Diep, CC, Horvath, E, Cusimano, M, Smyth, H, Lombardero, CC, Scheithauer, BW, Lloyd, RV. 2005 Prognostic indicators in an aggressive pituitary Crooke's cell adenoma Can J Neurol Sci 32:540–545.Google Scholar

Kovacs, K, Horvath, E, Coire, C, Cusimano, M, Smyth, H, Scheithauer, BW, Lloyd, RV. 2006 Pituitary corticotroph hyperplasia preceding adenoma in a patient with Nelson's syndrome Clin Neuropathol 25:74–80.Google Scholar

Horvath, E, Kovacs, K, Scheithauer, BW. 1999 Pituitary hyperplasia Pituitary 1:169–179.Google Scholar

Asa, SL, Kovacs, K, Tindall, GT, Barrow, DL, Horvath, E, Vecsei, P. 1984 Cushing's disease associated with an intrasellar gangliocytoma producing corticotrophin-releasing factor Ann Intern Med 101:789–793.Google Scholar

Boscaro, M, Sonino, N, Scarda, A, Barzon, L, Fallo, F, Sartori, MT, Patrassi, GM, Girolami, A. 2002 Anticoagulant prophylaxis markedly reduces thromboembolic complications in Cushing's syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:3662–3666.Google Scholar

Terzolo, M, Allasino, B, Bosio, S, Brusa, E, Daffara, F, Ventura, M, Aroasio, E, Sacchetto, G, Reimondo, G, Angeli, A, Camaschella, C. 2004 Hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with Cushing's syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3745–3751.Google Scholar

Zilio, M, Barbot, M, Ceccato, F, Camozzi, V, Bilora, F, Casonato, A, Frigo, AC, Albiger, N, Daidone, V, Mazzai, L, Mantero, F, Scaroni, C. 2014 Diagnosis and complications of Cushing's disease: gender-related differences Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 80:403–410.Google Scholar

Pecori Giraldi, F, Moro, M, Cavagnini, F. 2003 Gender-related differences in the presentation and course of Cushing's disease J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:1554–1558.Google Scholar

Arnaldi, G, Angeli, A, Atkinson, AB, Bertagna, X, Cavagnini, F, Chrousos, GP, Fava, GA, Findling, JW, Gaillard, RC, Grossman, AB, Kola, B, Lacroix, A, Mancini, T, Mantero, F, Newell-Price, J, Nieman, LK, Sonino, N, Vance, ML, Giustina, A, Boscaro, M. 2003 Diagnosis and complications of Cushing's syndrome: a consensus statement J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:5593–5602.Google Scholar

Findling, JW, Raff, H. 2006 Cushing's syndrome: important issues in diagnosis and management J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:3746–3753.Google Scholar

Nieman, LK, Biller, BM, Findling, JW, Newell-Price, J, Savage, MO, Stewart, PM, Montori, VM. 2008 The diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:1526–1540.Google Scholar

Boscaro, M, Arnaldi, G. 2009 Approach to the patient with possible Cushing's syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:3121–3131.Google Scholar

Woo, YS, Isidori, AM, Wat, WZ, Kaltsas, GA, Afshar, F, Sabin, I, Jenkins, PJ, Monson, JP, Besser, GM, Grossman, AB. 2005 Clinical and biochemical characteristics of adrenocorticotropin-secreting macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:4963–4969.Google Scholar

Nelson, DH, Meakin, JW, Dealy, JB Jr., Matson, DD, Emerson, K Jr., Thorn, GW. 1958 ACTH-producing tumor of the pituitary gland N Engl J Med 259:161–164.Google Scholar

Assié, G, Bahurel, H, Coste, J, Silvera, S, Kujas, M, Dugue, MA, Karray, F, Dousset, B, Bertherat, J, Legmann, P, Bertagna, X. 2007 Corticotroph tumor progression after adrenalectomy in Cushing's disease: a reappraisal of Nelson's syndrome J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:172–179.Google Scholar

Barber, TM, Adams, E, Ansorge, O, Byrne, JV, Karavitaki, N, Wass, JA. 2010 Nelson's syndrome Eur J Endocrinol 163:495–507.Google Scholar

Assié, G, Bahurel, H, Bertherat, J, Kujas, M, Legmann, P, Bertagna, X. 2004 The Nelson's syndrome revisited Pituitary 7:209–215.Google Scholar

Nelson, DH, Meakin, JW, Thorn, GW. 1960 ACTH-producing pituitary tumors following adrenalectomy for Cushing's syndrome Ann Intern Med 52:560–569.Google Scholar

McCance, DR, Russell, CF, Kennedy, TL, Hadden, DR, Kennedy, L, Atkinson, AB. 1993 Bilateral adrenalectomy: low mortality and morbidity in Cushing's disease Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 39:315–321.Google Scholar

Pereira, MA, Halpern, A, Salgado, LR, Mendonca, BB, Nery, M, Liberman, B, Streeten, DH, Wajchenberg, BL. 1998 A study of patients with Nelson's syndrome Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 49:533–539.Google Scholar

Moore, TJ, Dluhy, RG, Williams, GH, Cain, JP. 1976 Nelson's syndrome: frequency, prognosis, and effect of prior pituitary irradiation Ann Intern Med 85:731–734.Google Scholar

Nagesser, SK, van Seters, AP, Kievit, J, Hermans, J, Krans, HM, van de Velde, CJ. 2000 Long-term results of total adrenalectomy for Cushing's disease World J Surg 24:108–113.Google Scholar

Gil-Cardenas, A, Herrera, MF, Diaz-Polanco, A, Rios, JM, Pantoja, JP. 2007 Nelson's syndrome after bilateral adrenalectomy for Cushing's disease Surgery 141:147–151; discussion 51–52.Google Scholar

Verbalis, JG. 2003 Diabetes insipidus Rev Endocr Metab Disord 4:177–185.Google Scholar

Loh, JA, Verbalis, JG. 2008 Disorders of water and salt metabolism associated with pituitary disease Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 37:213–234, x.Google Scholar

Jane, JA Jr., Vance, ML, Laws, ER. 2006 Neurogenic diabetes insipidus Pituitary 9:327–329.Google Scholar

Babey, M, Kopp, P, Robertson, GL. 2011 Familial forms of diabetes insipidus: clinical and molecular characteristics Nat Rev Endocrinol 7:701–714.Google Scholar

Bichet, DG. 2012 Genetics and diagnosis of central diabetes insipidus Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 73:117–127.Google Scholar

Leroy, C, Karrouz, W, Douillard, C, Do Cao, C, Cortet, C, Wemeau, JL, Vantyghem, MC. 2013 Diabetes insipidus Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 74:496–507.Google Scholar

Gurling, KJ, Scott, GB, Baron, DN. 1957 Metastases in pituitary tissue removed at hypophysectomy in women with mammary carcinoma Br J Cancer 11:519–522.Google Scholar

Max, MB, Deck, MD, Rottenberg, DA. 1981 Pituitary metastasis: incidence in cancer patients and clinical differentiation from pituitary adenoma Neurology 31:998–1002.Google Scholar

Turcu, AF, Erickson, BJ, Lin, E, Guadalix, S, Schwartz, K, Scheithauer, BW, Atkinson, JL, Young, WF Jr. 2013 Pituitary stalk lesions: the Mayo Clinic experience J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:1812–1818.Google Scholar

Sioutos, P, Yen, V, Arbit, E. 1996 Pituitary gland metastases Ann Surg Oncol 3:94–99.Google Scholar

Houck, WA, Olson, KB, Horton, J. 1970 Clinical features of tumor metastasis to the pituitary Cancer 26:656–659.Google Scholar

Cheung, CC, Ezzat, S, Smyth, HS, Asa, SL. 2001 The spectrum and significance of primary hypophysitis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:1048–1053.Google Scholar

Thodou, E, Asa, SL, Kontogeorgos, G, Kovacs, K, Horvath, E, Ezzat, S. 1995 Clinical case seminar: lymphocytic hypophysitis: clinicopathological findings J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2302–2311.Google Scholar

Burt, MG, Morey, AL, Turner, JJ, Pell, M, Sheehy, JP, Ho, KK. 2003 Xanthomatous pituitary lesions: a report of two cases and review of the literature Pituitary 6:161–168.Google Scholar

Gutenberg, A, Caturegli, P, Metz, I, Martinez, R, Mohr, A, Bruck, W, Rohde, V. 2012 Necrotizing infundibulo-hypophysitis: an entity too rare to be true? Pituitary 15:202–208.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stone, JH, Khosroshahi, A, Deshpande, V, Chan, JK, Heathcote, JG, Aalberse, R, Azumi, A, Bloch, DB, Brugge, WR, Carruthers, MN, Cheuk, W, Cornell, L, Castillo, CF, Ferry, JA, Forcione, D, Kloppel, G, Hamilos, DL, Kamisawa, T, Kasashima, S, Kawa, S, Kawano, M, Masaki, Y, Notohara, K, Okazaki, K, Ryu, JK, Saeki, T, Sahani, D, Sato, Y, Smyrk, T, Stone, JR, Takahira, M, Umehara, H, Webster, G, Yamamoto, M, Yi, E, Yoshino, T, Zamboni, G, Zen, Y, Chari, S. 2012 Recommendations for the nomenclature of IgG4-related disease and its individual organ system manifestations Arthritis Rheum 64:3061–3067.Google Scholar

van der Vliet, HJ, Perenboom, RM. 2004 Multiple pseudotumors in IgG4-associated multifocal systemic fibrosis Ann Intern Med 141:896–897.Google Scholar

Hori, M, Makita, N, Andoh, T, Takiyama, H, Yajima, Y, Sakatani, T, Fukumoto, S, Iiri, T, Fujita, T. 2010 Long-term clinical course of IgG4-related systemic disease accompanied by hypophysitis Endocr J 57:485–492.Google Scholar

Leporati, P, Landek-Salgado, MA, Lupi, I, Chiovato, L, Caturegli, P. 2011 IgG4-related hypophysitis: a new addition to the hypophysitis spectrum J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:1971–1980.Google Scholar

Nakata, Y, Sato, N, Masumoto, T, Mori, H, Akai, H, Nobusawa, H, Adachi, Y, Oba, H, Ohtomo, K. 2010 Parasellar T2 dark sign on MR imaging in patients with lymphocytic hypophysitis AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 31:1944–1950.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hess, CP, Dillon, WP. 2012 Imaging the pituitary and parasellar region Neurosurg Clin N Am 23:529–542.Google Scholar

Devdhar, M, Ousman, YH, Burman, KD. 2007 Hypothyroidism Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 36:595–615, v.Google Scholar

Garber, JR, Cobin, RH, Gharib, H, Hennessey, JV, Klein, I, Mechanick, JI, Pessah-Pollack, R, Singer, PA, Woeber, KA. 2012 Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association Thyroid 22:1200–1235.Google Scholar

Tunbridge, WM, Evered, DC, Hall, R, Appleton, D, Brewis, M, Clark, F, Evans, JG, Young, E, Bird, T, Smith, PA. 1977 The spectrum of thyroid disease in a community: the Whickham survey Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 7:481–493.Google Scholar

Leung, AM, Braverman, LE. 2012 Iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 19:414–419.Google Scholar

Pearce, EN, Andersson, M, Zimmermann, MB. 2013 Global iodine nutrition: where do we stand in 2013? Thyroid 23:523–528.Google Scholar

Green, M, Wilson, GM. 1964 Thyrotoxicosis treated by surgery or iodine-131. With special reference to development of hypothyroidism Br Med J 1:1005–1010.Google Scholar

Samuels, MH. 2012 Subacute, silent, and postpartum thyroiditis Med Clin North Am 96:223–233.Google Scholar

Antonelli, A, Fazzi, P, Fallahi, P, Ferrari, SM, Ferrannini, E. 2006 Prevalence of hypothyroidism and Graves disease in sarcoidosis Chest 130:526–532.Google Scholar

Manchanda, A, Patel, S, Jiang, JJ, Babu, AR. 2013 Thyroid: an unusual hideout for sarcoidosis Endocr Pract 19:e40–43.Google Scholar

Bonato, C, Severino, RF, Elnecave, RH. 2008 Reduced thyroid volume and hypothyroidism in survivors of childhood cancer treated with radiotherapy J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 21:943–949.Google Scholar

Lin, Z, Wu, VW, Lin, J, Feng, H, Chen, L. 2011 A longitudinal study on the radiation-induced thyroid gland changes after external beam radiotherapy of nasopharyngeal carcinoma Thyroid 21:19–23.Google Scholar

Bogazzi, F, Tomisti, L, Bartalena, L, Aghini-Lombardi, F, Martino, E. 2012 Amiodarone and the thyroid: a 2012 update J Endocrinol Invest 35:340–348.Google Scholar

Lai, EC, Yang, YH, Lin, SJ, Hsieh, CY. 2013 Use of antiepileptic drugs and risk of hypothyroidism Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 22:1071–1079.Google Scholar

Bianchi, L, Rossi, L, Tomao, F, Papa, A, Zoratto, F, Tomao, S. 2013 Thyroid dysfunction and tyrosine kinase inhibitors in renal cell carcinoma Endocr Relat Cancer 20:R233–245.Google Scholar

Torino, F, Barnabei, A, Paragliola, R, Baldelli, R, Appetecchia, M, Corsello, SM. 2013 Thyroid dysfunction as an unintended side effect of anticancer drugs Thyroid 23:1345–1366.Google Scholar

Wassner, AJ, Brown, RS. 2013 Hypothyroidism in the newborn period Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 20:449–454.Google Scholar

Lindholm, J, Laurberg, P. 2011 Hypothyroidism and thyroid substitution: historical aspects J Thyroid Res 2011:809341.Google Scholar

Wartofsky, L. 2006 Myxedema coma Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 35:687–98, vii-viii.Google Scholar

Canaris, GJ, Manowitz, NR, Mayor, G, Ridgway, EC. 2000 The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study Arch Intern Med 160:526–534.Google Scholar

Watanakunakorn, C, Hodges, RE, Evans, TC. 1965 Myxedema; a study of 400 cases Arch Intern Med 116:183–190.Google Scholar

Sims, EG. 1983 Hypothyroidism causing macrocytic anemia unresponsive to B12 and folate J Natl Med Assoc 75:429–431.Google Scholar

Klein, I, Levey, GS. 1984 Unusual manifestations of hypothyroidism Arch Intern Med 144:123–128.Google Scholar

Fletcher, AK, Weetman, AP. 1998 Hypertension and hypothyroidism J Hum Hypertens 12:79–82.Google Scholar

Duyff, RF, Van den Bosch, J, Laman, DM, van Loon, BJ, Linssen, WH. 2000 Neuromuscular findings in thyroid dysfunction: a prospective clinical and electrodiagnostic study J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 68:750–755.Google Scholar

Carani, C, Isidori, AM, Granata, A, Carosa, E, Maggi, M, Lenzi, A, Jannini, EA. 2005 Multicenter study on the prevalence of sexual symptoms in male hypo- and hyperthyroid patients J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:6472–6479.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Krassas, GE. 2000 Thyroid disease and female reproduction Fertil Steril 74:1063–1070.Google Scholar

Kakuno, Y, Amino, N, Kanoh, M, Kawai, M, Fujiwara, M, Kimura, M, Kamitani, A, Saya, K, Shakuta, R, Nitta, S, Hayashida, Y, Kudo, T, Kubota, S, Miyauchi, A. 2010 Menstrual disturbances in various thyroid diseases Endocr J 57:1017–1022.Google Scholar

Schlenker, EH. 2012 Effects of hypothyroidism on the respiratory system and control of breathing: human studies and animal models Respir Physiol Neurobiol 181:123–131.Google Scholar

Stabouli, S, Papakatsika, S, Kotsis, V. 2010 Hypothyroidism and hypertension Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 8:1559–1565.Google Scholar

Luk, A, Ezzat, S, Butany, J. 2013 Pathology, pathophysiology, and treatment strategies of endocrine disorders and their cardiac complications Semin Diagn Pathol 30:245–262.Google Scholar

Stuijver, DJ, Piantanida, E, van Zaane, B, Galli, L, Romualdi, E, Tanda, ML, Meijers, JC, Buller, HR, Gerdes, VE, Squizzato, A. 2014 Acquired von Willebrand syndrome in patients with overt hypothyroidism: a prospective cohort study Haemophilia 20:326–332.Google Scholar

Bahn, RS, Burch, HB, Cooper, DS, Garber, JR, Greenlee, MC, Klein, I, Laurberg, P, McDougall, IR, Montori, VM, Rivkees, SA, Ross, DS, Sosa, JA, Stan, MN. 2011 Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Endocr Pract 17:456–520.Google Scholar

Franklyn, JA, Boelaert, K. 2012 Thyrotoxicosis Lancet 379:1155–1166.Google Scholar

Intenzo, CM, dePapp, AE, Jabbour, S, Miller, JL, Kim, SM, Capuzzi, DM. 2003 Scintigraphic manifestations of thyrotoxicosis Radiographics 23:857–869.Google Scholar

Cooper, DS. 2003 Hyperthyroidism Lancet 362:459–468.Google Scholar

Barker, DJ, Phillips, DI. 1984 Current incidence of thyrotoxicosis and past prevalence of goitre in 12 British towns Lancet ii:567–570.Google Scholar

Brownlie, BE, Wells, JE. 1990 The epidemiology of thyrotoxicosis in New Zealand: incidence and geographical distribution in north Canterbury, 1983–1985 Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 33:249–259.Google Scholar

Laurberg, P, Pedersen, KM, Vestergaard, H, Sigurdsson, G. 1991 High incidence of multinodular toxic goitre in the elderly population in a low iodine intake area vs. high incidence of Graves' disease in the young in a high iodine intake area: comparative surveys of thyrotoxicosis epidemiology in East-Jutland Denmark and Iceland J Intern Med 229:415–420.Google Scholar

Berglund, J, Ericsson, UB, Hallengren, B. 1996 Increased incidence of thyrotoxicosis in Malmo during the years 1988–1990 as compared to the years 1970–1974 J Intern Med 239:57–62.Google Scholar

Carle, A, Pedersen, IB, Knudsen, N, Perrild, H, Ovesen, L, Rasmussen, LB, Laurberg, P. 2011 Epidemiology of subtypes of hyperthyroidism in Denmark: a population-based study Eur J Endocrinol 164:801–809.Google Scholar

Paul, SJ, Sisson, JC. 1990 Thyrotoxicosis caused by thyroid cancer Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 19:593–612.Google Scholar

Salvatori, M, Saletnich, I, Rufini, V, Dottorini, ME, Corsello, SM, Troncone, L, Shapiro, B. 1998 Severe thyrotoxicosis due to functioning pulmonary metastases of well-differentiated thyroid cancer J Nucl Med 39:1202–1207.Google Scholar

Kasagi, K, Takeuchi, R, Miyamoto, S, Misaki, T, Inoue, D, Shimazu, A, Mori, T, Konishi, J. 1994 Metastatic thyroid cancer presenting as thyrotoxicosis: report of three cases Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40:429–434.Google Scholar

Ishihara, T, Ikekubo, K, Shimodahira, M, Iwakura, T, Kobayashi, M, Hino, M, Oobayashi, M, Kohno, K, Kimura, K, Kawamura, S, Kurahachi, H. 2002 A case of TSH receptor antibody-positive hyperthyroidism with functioning metastases of thyroid carcinoma Endocr J 49:241–245.Google Scholar

Basaria, S, Salvatori, R. 2002 Thyrotoxicosis due to metastatic papillary thyroid cancer in a patient with Graves' disease J Endocrinol Invest 25:639–642.Google Scholar

Majima, T, Doi, K, Komatsu, Y, Itoh, H, Fukao, A, Shigemoto, M, Takagi, C, Corners, J, Mizuta, N, Kato, R, Nakao, K. 2005 Papillary thyroid carcinoma without metastases manifesting as an autonomously functioning thyroid nodule Endocr J 52:309–316.Google Scholar

Tfayli, HM, Teot, LA, Indyk, JA, Witchel, SF. 2010 Papillary thyroid carcinoma in an autonomous hyperfunctioning thyroid nodule: case report and review of the literature Thyroid 20:1029–1032.Google Scholar

Belfiore, A, Russo, D, Vigneri, R, Filetti, S. 2001 Graves' disease, thyroid nodules and thyroid cancer Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 55:711–718.Google Scholar

McIver, B, Morris, JC. 1998 The pathogenesis of Graves' disease Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 27:73–89.Google Scholar

Prabhakar, BS, Bahn, RS, Smith, TJ. 2003 Current perspective on the pathogenesis of Graves' disease and ophthalmopathy Endocr Rev 24:802–835.Google Scholar

Weetman, AP. 2003 Grave's disease 1835–2002 Horm Res 59(suppl 1):114–118.Google Scholar

Bahn, RS. 2010 Graves' ophthalmopathy N Engl J Med 362:726–738.Google Scholar

Fatourechi, V, Pajouhi, M, Fransway, AF. 1994 Dermopathy of Graves disease (pretibial myxedema). Review of 150 cases Medicine (Baltimore) 73:1–7.Google Scholar

Carnell, NE, Valente, WA. 1998 Thyroid nodules in Graves' disease: classification, characterization, and response to treatment Thyroid 8:647–652.Google Scholar

Kraimps, JL, Bouin-Pineau, MH, Mathonnet, M, De Calan, L, Ronceray, J, Visset, J, Marechaud, R, Barbier, J. 2000 Multicentre study of thyroid nodules in patients with Graves' disease Br J Surg 87:1111–1113.Google Scholar

Pazaitou-Panayiotou, K, Michalakis, K, Paschke, R. 2012 Thyroid cancer in patients with hyperthyroidism Horm Metab Res 44:255–262.Google Scholar

Dolman, PJ. 2012 Evaluating Graves' orbitopathy Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 26:229–248.Google Scholar

Dickinson, AJ, Perros, P. 2001 Controversies in the clinical evaluation of active thyroid-associated orbitopathy: use of a detailed protocol with comparative photographs for objective assessment Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 55:283–303.Google Scholar

Burra, P. 2013 Liver abnormalities and endocrine diseases Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 27:553–563.Google Scholar

Brent, GA. 2008 Clinical practice. Graves' disease N Engl J Med 358:2594–2605.Google Scholar

Vestergaard, P, Mosekilde, L. 2003 Hyperthyroidism, bone mineral, and fracture risk–a meta-analysis Thyroid 13:585–593.Google Scholar

Sarne, DH, Refetoff, S, Rosenfield, RL, Farriaux, JP. 1988 Sex hormone-binding globulin in the diagnosis of peripheral tissue resistance to thyroid hormone: the value of changes after short term triiodothyronine administration J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66:740–746.Google Scholar

Gianoukakis, AG, Leigh, MJ, Richards, P, Christenson, PD, Hakimian, A, Fu, P, Niihara, Y, Smith, TJ. 2009 Characterization of the anaemia associated with Graves' disease Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 70:781–787.Google Scholar

Kubota, K, Tamura, J, Kurabayashi, H, Shirakura, T, Kobayashi, I. 1993 Evaluation of increased serum ferritin levels in patients with hyperthyroidism Clin Invest 72:26–29.Google Scholar

Bunevicius, R, Prange, AJ Jr. 2006 Psychiatric manifestations of Graves' hyperthyroidism: pathophysiology and treatment options CNS Drugs 20:897–909.Google Scholar

Frates, MC, Benson, CB, Charboneau, JW, Cibas, ES, Clark, OH, Coleman, BG, Cronan, JJ, Doubilet, PM, Evans, DB, Goellner, JR, Hay, ID, Hertzberg, BS, Intenzo, CM, Jeffrey, RB, Langer, JE, Larsen, PR, Mandel, SJ, Middleton, WD, Reading, CC, Sherman, SI, Tessler, FN, Society of Radiologists. 2005 Management of thyroid nodules detected at US: Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound consensus conference statement Radiology 237:794–800.Google Scholar

McCaffrey, TV, Bergstralh, EJ, Hay, ID. 1994 Locally invasive papillary thyroid carcinoma: 1940–1990 Head Neck 16 165–172.Google Scholar

Ron, E, Lubin, JH, Shore, RE, Mabuchi, K, Modan, B, Pottern, LM, Schneider, AB, Tucker, MA, Boice, JD Jr. 1995 Thyroid cancer after exposure to external radiation: a pooled analysis of seven studies Radiat Res 141:259–277.Google Scholar

Moysich, KB, Menezes, RJ, Michalek, AM. 2002 Chernobyl-related ionising radiation exposure and cancer risk: an epidemiological review Lancet Oncol 3:269–279.Google Scholar

Kang, KW, Kim, SK, Kang, HS, Lee, ES, Sim, JS, Lee, IG, Jeong, SY, Kim, SW. 2003 Prevalence and risk of cancer of focal thyroid incidentaloma identified by ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for metastasis evaluation and cancer screening in healthy subjects J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:4100–4104.Google Scholar

Bae, JS, Chae, BJ, Park, WC, Kim, JS, Kim, SH, Jung, SS, Song, BJ. 2009 Incidental thyroid lesions detected by FDG-PET/CT: prevalence and risk of thyroid cancer World J Surg Oncol 7:63.Google Scholar

Cohen, A, Rovelli, A, Merlo, DF, van Lint, MT, Lanino, E, Bresters, D, Ceppi, M, Bocchini, V, Tichelli, A, Socie, G. 2007 Risk for secondary thyroid carcinoma after hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation: an EBMT Late Effects Working Party Study J Clin Oncol 25:2449–2454.Google Scholar

Dotto, J, Nosé, V. 2008 Familial thyroid carcinoma: a diagnostic algorithm Adv Anat Pathol 15:332–349.Google Scholar

Vivanco, M, Dalle, JH, Alberti, C, Lescoeur, B, Yakouben, K, Carel, JC, Baruchel, A, Leger, J. 2012 Malignant and benign thyroid nodules after total body irradiation preceding hematopoietic cell transplantation during childhood Eur J Endocrinol 167:225–233.Google Scholar

Bauer, AJ. 2013 Clinical behavior and genetics of nonsyndromic, familial nonmedullary thyroid cancer Front Horm Res 41:141–148.Google Scholar

Niedziela, M. 2006 Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules in children Endocr Relat Cancer 13:427–453.Google Scholar

Favus, MJ, Schneider, AB, Stachura, ME, Arnold, JE, Ryo, UY, Pinsky, SM, Colman, M, Arnold, MJ, Frohman, LA. 1976 Thyroid cancer occurring as a late consequence of head-and-neck irradiation. Evaluation of 1056 patients N Engl J Med 294:1019–1025.Google Scholar

Curtis, RE, Rowlings, PA, Deeg, HJ, Shriner, DA, Socie, G, Travis, LB, Horowitz, MM, Witherspoon, RP, Hoover, RN, Sobocinski, KA, Fraumeni, JF Jr., Boice, JD Jr. 1997 Solid cancers after bone marrow transplantation N Engl J Med 336:897–904.Google Scholar

Brito, JP, Gionfriddo, MR, Al Nofal, A, Boehmer, KR, Leppin, AL, Reading, C, Callstrom, M, Elraiyah, TA, Prokop, LJ, Stan, MN, Murad, MH, Morris, JC, Montori, VM. 2014 The accuracy of thyroid nodule ultrasound to predict thyroid cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:1253–1263.Google Scholar

Smith-Bindman, R, Lebda, P, Feldstein, VA, Sellami, D, Goldstein, RB, Brasic, N, Jin, C, Kornak, J. 2013 Risk of thyroid cancer based on thyroid ultrasound imaging characteristics: results of a population-based study JAMA internal medicine 173:1788–1796.Google Scholar

Kim, E, Park, JS, Son, KR, Kim, JH, Jeon, SJ, Na, DG. 2008 Preoperative diagnosis of cervical metastatic lymph nodes in papillary thyroid carcinoma: comparison of ultrasound, computed tomography, and combined ultrasound with computed tomography Thyroid 18:411–418.Google Scholar

Yeh, MW, Bauer, AJ, Bernet, VA, Ferris, RL, Loevner, LA, Mandel, SJ, Orloff, LA, Randolph, GW, Steward, DL. 2014 American Thyroid Association statement on preoperative imaging for thyroid cancer surgery Thyroid 35:2186–2191.Google Scholar

Rosario, PW, de Faria, S, Bicalho, L, Alves, MF, Borges, MA, Purisch, S, Padrao, EL, Rezende, LL, Barroso, AL. 2005 Ultrasonographic differentiation between metastatic and benign lymph nodes in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma J Ultrasound Med 24:1385–1389.Google Scholar

American Thyroid Association (ATA) Guidelines Taskforce on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer, Cooper, DS, Doherty, GM, Haugen, BR, Kloos, RT, Lee, SL, Mandel, SJ, Mazzaferri, EL, McIver, B, Pacini, F, Schlumberger, M, Sherman, SI, Steward, DL, Tuttle, RM. 2009 Revised American Thyroid Association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer Thyroid 19:1167–1214.Google Scholar

Wharry, LI, McCoy, KL, Stang, MT, Armstrong, MJ, LeBeau, SO, Tublin, ME, Sholosh, B, Silbermann, A, Ohori, NP, Nikiforov, YE, Hodak, SP, Carty, SE, Yip, L. 2014 Thyroid nodules (≥4 cm): can ultrasound and cytology reliably exclude cancer? World J Surg 38:614–621.Google Scholar

Hoang, JK, Lee, WK, Lee, M, Johnson, D, Farrell, S. 2007 US Features of thyroid malignancy: pearls and pitfalls Radiographics 27:847–860; discussion 61–65.Google Scholar

McCoy, KL, Jabbour, N, Ogilvie, JB, Ohori, NP, Carty, SE, Yim, JH. 2007 The incidence of cancer and rate of false-negative cytology in thyroid nodules greater than or equal to 4 cm in size Surgery 142:837–844; discussion 44e1–3.Google Scholar

Mon, SY, Hodak, SP. 2014 Molecular diagnostics for thyroid nodules: the current state of affairs Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 43:345–365.Google Scholar

Yassa, L, Cibas, ES, Benson, CB, Frates, MC, Doubilet, PM, Gawande, AA, Moore, FD Jr., Kim, BW, Nosé, V, Marqusee, E, Larsen, PR, Alexander, EK. 2007 Long-term assessment of a multidisciplinary approach to thyroid nodule diagnostic evaluation Cancer 111:508–516.Google Scholar

VanderLaan, PA, Marqusee, E, Krane, JF. 2011 Clinical outcome for atypia of undetermined significance in thyroid fine-needle aspirations: should repeated FNA be the preferred initial approach? Am J Clin Pathol 135:770–775.Google Scholar

Yang, J, Schnadig, V, Logrono, R, Wasserman, PG. 2007 Fine-needle aspiration of thyroid nodules: a study of 4703 patients with histologic and clinical correlations Cancer 111:306–315.Google Scholar

Bongiovanni, M, Piana, S, Spitale, A, Valli, R, Carlinfante, G, Gardini, G. 2014 Comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of thyroid fine-needle aspiration in follicular-patterned lesions using a 5-tiered and a 6-tiered diagnostic system: a double-blind study of 140 cases with histological confirmation Diagn Cytopathol 42:744–750.Google Scholar

Alexander, EK, Kennedy, GC, Baloch, ZW, Cibas, ES, Chudova, D, Diggans, J, Friedman, L, Kloos, RT, LiVolsi, VA, Mandel, SJ, Raab, SS, Rosai, J, Steward, DL, Walsh, PS, Wilde, JI, Zeiger, MA, Lanman, RB, Haugen, BR. 2012 Preoperative diagnosis of benign thyroid nodules with indeterminate cytology N Engl J Med 367:705–715.Google Scholar

Cibas, ES, Ali, SZ. 2009 The Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology Am J Clin Pathol 132:658–665.Google Scholar

Gharib, H, Papini, E, Paschke, R, Duick, DS, Valcavi, R, Hegedus, L, Vitti, P. 2010 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, Associazione Medici Endocrinologi, and European Thyroid Association Medical guidelines for clinical practice for the diagnosis and management of thyroid nodules: executive summary of recommendations Endocr Pract 16:468–475.Google Scholar

Nikiforov, YE, Ohori, NP, Hodak, SP, Carty, SE, LeBeau, SO, Ferris, RL, Yip, L, Seethala, RR, Tublin, ME, Stang, MT, Coyne, C, Johnson, JT, Stewart, AF, Nikiforova, MN. 2011 Impact of mutational testing on the diagnosis and management of patients with cytologically indeterminate thyroid nodules: a prospective analysis of 1056 FNA samples J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:3390–3397.Google Scholar

Canadian Cancer Society 2014 Canadian Cancer Statistics 2014. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Cancer Society.Google Scholar

American Cancer Society 2014 Cancer Facts and Figures 2014. Toronto, Ontario: Canadian Cancer Society.Google Scholar

Hundahl, SA, Fleming, ID, Fremgen, AM, Menck, HR. 1998 A National Cancer Data Base report on 53 856 cases of thyroid carcinoma treated in the US, 1985–1995 Cancer 83:2638–2648.Google Scholar

DeGroot, LJ, Kaplan, EL, McCormick, M, Straus, FH. 1990 Natural history, treatment, and course of papillary thyroid carcinoma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:414–424.Google Scholar

Davies, L, Welch, HG. 2006 Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973–2002 JAMA 295:2164–2167.Google Scholar

Pellegriti, G, Frasca, F, Regalbuto, C, Squatrito, S, Vigneri, R. 2013 Worldwide increasing incidence of thyroid cancer: update on epidemiology and risk factors J Cancer Epidemiol 2013:965212.Google Scholar

Sipos, JA, Mazzaferri, EL. 2010 Thyroid cancer epidemiology and prognostic variables Clin Oncol 22:395–404.Google Scholar

Benbassat, CA, Mechlis-Frish, S, Hirsch, D. 2006 Clinicopathological characteristics and long-term outcome in patients with distant metastases from differentiated thyroid cancer World J Surg 30:1088–1095.Google Scholar

Grogan, RH, Kaplan, SP, Cao, H, Weiss, RE, Degroot, LJ, Simon, CA, Embia, OM, Angelos, P, Kaplan, EL, Schechter, RB. 2013 A study of recurrence and death from papillary thyroid cancer with 27 years of median follow-up Surgery 154:1436–1446; discussion 46–47.Google Scholar

Hay, ID, Bergstralh, EJ, Goellner, JR, Ebersold, JR, Grant, CS. 1993 Predicting outcome in papillary thyroid carcinoma: development of a reliable prognostic scoring system in a cohort of 1779 patients surgically treated at one institution during 1940 through 1989 Surgery 114:1050–7; discussion 7–8.Google Scholar

Ruegemer, JJ, Hay, ID, Bergstralh, EJ, Ryan, JJ, Offord, KP, Gorman, CA. 1988 Distant metastases in differentiated thyroid carcinoma: a multivariate analysis of prognostic variables J Clin Endocrinol Metab 67:501–508.Google Scholar

Edge, SB, Byrd, D.R., Comptom, C.C., Fritz, A.G., Greene, F.L, Trotti, A., et al. 2010 AJCC Cancer Staging Manual New York: Springer.Google Scholar

Mete, O, Asa, SL. 2011 Pathological definition and clinical significance of vascular invasion in thyroid carcinomas of follicular epithelial derivation Mod Pathol 24:1545–1552.Google Scholar

Randolph, GW, Duh, QY, Heller, KS, LiVolsi, VA, Mandel, SJ, Steward, DL, Tufano, RP, Tuttle, RM, American Thyroid Association Surgical Affairs Committee's Taskforce on Thyroid Cancer 2012 The prognostic significance of nodal metastases from papillary thyroid carcinoma can be stratified based on the size and number of metastatic lymph nodes, as well as the presence of extranodal extension Thyroid 22:1144–1152.Google Scholar

Dean, DS, Hay, ID. 2000 Prognostic indicators in differentiated thyroid carcinoma Cancer Control 7:229–239.Google Scholar

Nixon, IJ, Whitcher, MM, Palmer, FL, Tuttle, RM, Shaha, AR, Shah, JP, Patel, SG, Ganly, I. 2012 The impact of distant metastases at presentation on prognosis in patients with differentiated carcinoma of the thyroid gland Thyroid 22:884–889.Google Scholar

Kazaure, HS, Roman, SA, Sosa, JA. 2012 Aggressive variants of papillary thyroid cancer: incidence, characteristics and predictors of survival among 43 738 patients Ann Surg Oncol 19:1874–1880.Google Scholar

Nixon, IJ, Ganly, I, Patel, S, Palmer, FL, Whitcher, MM, Tuttle, RM, Shaha, AR, Shah, JP. 2011 The impact of microscopic extrathyroid extension on outcome in patients with clinical T1 and T2 well-differentiated thyroid cancer Surgery 150:1242–1249.Google Scholar

Sherman, SI, Brierley, JD, Sperling, M, Ain, KB, Bigos, ST, Cooper, DS, Haugen, BR, Ho, M, Klein, I, Ladenson, PW, Robbins, J, Ross, DS, Specker, B, Taylor, T, Maxon, HR, 3rd 1998 Prospective multicenter study of thyroiscarcinoma treatment: initial analysis of staging and outcome. National Thyroid Cancer Treatment Cooperative Study Registry Group Cancer 83:1012–1021.Google Scholar

Hay, ID, Hutchinson, ME, Gonzalez-Losada, T, McIver, B, Reinalda, ME, Grant, CS, Thompson, GB, Sebo, TJ, Goellner, JR. 2008 Papillary thyroid microcarcinoma: a study of 900 cases observed in a 60-year period Surgery 144:980–987; discussion 7–8.Google Scholar

Ito, Y, Miyauchi, A, Inoue, H, Fukushima, M, Kihara, M, Higashiyama, T, Tomoda, C, Takamura, Y, Kobayashi, K, Miya, A. 2010 An observational trial for papillary thyroid microcarcinoma in Japanese patients World J Surg 34:28–35.Google Scholar

Nixon, IJ, Ganly, I, Patel, SG, Palmer, FL, Whitcher, MM, Tuttle, RM, Shaha, A, Shah, JP. 2012 Thyroid lobectomy for treatment of well differentiated intrathyroid malignancy Surgery 151:571–579.Google Scholar

Nixon, IJ, Ganly, I, Patel, SG, Palmer, FL, Di Lorenzo, MM, Grewal, RK, Larson, SM, Tuttle, RM, Shaha, A, Shah, JP. 2013 The results of selective use of radioactive iodine on survival and on recurrence in the management of papillary thyroid cancer, based on Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center risk group stratification Thyroid 23:683–694.Google Scholar

Matsuzu, K, Sugino, K, Masudo, K, Nagahama, M, Kitagawa, W, Shibuya, H, Ohkuwa, K, Uruno, T, Suzuki, A, Magoshi, S, Akaishi, J, Masaki, C, Kawano, M, Suganuma, N, Rino, Y, Masuda, M, Kameyama, K, Takami, H, Ito, K. 2014 Thyroid lobectomy for papillary thyroid cancer: long-term follow-up study of 1088 cases World J Surg 38:68–79.Google Scholar

Momesso, DP, Tuttle, RM. 2014 Update on differentiated thyroid cancer staging Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 43:401–421.Google Scholar

Jonklaas, J, Sarlis, NJ, Litofsky, D, Ain, KB, Bigos, ST, Brierley, JD, Cooper, DS, Haugen, BR, Ladenson, PW, Magner, J, Robbins, J, Ross, DS, Skarulis, M, Maxon, HR, Sherman, SI. 2006 Outcomes of patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma following initial therapy Thyroid 16:1229–1242.Google Scholar

Jonklaas, J, Cooper, DS, Ain, KB, Bigos, T, Brierley, JD, Haugen, BR, Ladenson, PW, Magner, J, Ross, DS, Skarulis, MC, Steward, DL, Maxon, HR, Sherman, SI, National Thyroid Cancer Treatment Cooperative Study. 2010 Radioiodine therapy in patients with stage I differentiated thyroid cancer Thyroid 20:1423–1424.Google Scholar

Hay, ID, Thompson, GB, Grant, CS, Bergstralh, EJ, Dvorak, CE, Gorman, CA, Maurer, MS, McIver, B, Mullan, BP, Oberg, AL, Powell, CC, van Heerden, JA, Goellner, JR. 2002 Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo Clinic during six decades (1940–1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients World J Surg 26:879–885.Google Scholar

Mazzaferri, EL, Jhiang, SM. 1994 Long-term impact of initial surgical and medical therapy on papillary and follicular thyroid cancer Am J Med 97:418–428.Google Scholar

Schlumberger, M, Challeton, C, De Vathaire, F, Travagli, JP, Gardet, P, Lumbroso, JD, Francese, C, Fontaine, F, Ricard, M, Parmentier, C. 1996 Radioactive iodine treatment and external radiotherapy for lung and bone metastases from thyroid carcinoma J Nucl Med 37:598–605.Google Scholar

Podnos, YD, Smith, DD, Wagman, LD, Ellenhorn, JD. 2007 Survival in patients with papillary thyroid cancer is not affected by the use of radioactive isotope J Surg Oncol 96:3–7.Google Scholar

Qiu, ZL, Shen, CT, Luo, QY. 2015 Clinical management and outcomes in patients with hyperfunctioning distant metastases from differentiated thyroid cancer after total thyroidectomy and radioactive iodine therapy Thyroid 25:229–237.Google Scholar

Brierley, JD. 2011 Update on external beam radiation therapy in thyroid cancer J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:2289–2295.Google Scholar

Vaisman, F, Tala, H, Grewal, R, Tuttle, RM. 2011 In differentiated thyroid cancer, an incomplete structural response to therapy is associated with significantly worse clinical outcomes than only an incomplete thyroglobulin response Thyroid 21:1317–1322.Google Scholar

Gilliland, FD, Hunt, WC, Morris, DM, Key, CR. 1997 Prognostic factors for thyroid carcinoma. A population-based study of 15 698 cases from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) program 1973–1991 Cancer 79:564–573.Google Scholar

Feldt-Rasmussen, U. 2001 Iodine and cancer Thyroid 11:483–486.Google Scholar

DeGroot, LJ, Kaplan, EL, Shukla, MS, Salti, G, Straus, FH. 1995 Morbidity and mortality in follicular thyroid cancer J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2946–2953.Google Scholar

Simpson, WJ, McKinney, SE, Carruthers, JS, Gospodarowicz, MK, Sutcliffe, SB, Panzarella, T. 1987 Papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. Prognostic factors in 1578 patients Am J Med 83:479–488.Google Scholar

Sugino, K, Kameyama, K, Ito, K, Nagahama, M, Kitagawa, W, Shibuya, H, Ohkuwa, K, Yano, Y, Uruno, T, Akaishi, J, Suzuki, A, Masaki, C, Ito, K. 2012 Outcomes and prognostic factors of 251 patients with minimally invasive follicular thyroid carcinoma Thyroid 22:798–804.Google Scholar

Lin, JD, Liou, MJ, Chao, TC, Weng, HF, Ho, YS. 1999 Prognostic variables of papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma patients with lymph node metastases and without distant metastases Endocr Relat Cancer 6:109–115.Google Scholar

Passler, C, Prager, G, Scheuba, C, Kaserer, K, Zettinig, G, Niederle, B. 2003 Application of staging systems for differentiated thyroid carcinoma in an endemic goiter region with iodine substitution Ann Surg 237:227–234.Google Scholar

Brierley, JD, Panzarella, T, Tsang, RW, Gospodarowicz, MK, O'Sullivan, B. 1997 A comparison of different staging systems predictability of patient outcome. Thyroid carcinoma as an example Cancer 79:2414–2423.Google Scholar

D'Avanzo, A, Ituarte, P, Treseler, P, Kebebew, E, Wu, J, Wong, M, Duh, QY, Siperstein, AE, Clark, OH. 2004 Prognostic scoring systems in patients with follicular thyroid cancer: a comparison of different staging systems in predicting the patient outcome Thyroid 14:453–458.Google Scholar

Sampson, E, Brierley, JD, Le, LW, Rotstein, L, Tsang, RW. 2007 Clinical management and outcome of papillary and follicular (differentiated) thyroid cancer presenting with distant metastasis at diagnosis Cancer 110:1451–1456.Google Scholar

Fat, I, Kulaga, M, Dodis, R, Carling, T, Theoharis, C, Rennert, NJ. 2011 Insular variant of poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma Endocr Pract 17:115–121.Google Scholar

Ibrahimpasic, T, Ghossein, R, Carlson, DL, Nixon, I, Palmer, FL, Shaha, AR, Patel, SG, Tuttle, RM, Shah, JP, Ganly, I. 2014 Outcomes in patients with poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:1245–1252.Google Scholar

Walczyk, A, Kowalska, A, Sygut, J. 2010 The clinical course of poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma (insular carcinoma): own observations Endokrynol Polska 61:467–473.Google Scholar

Rivera, M, Ghossein, RA, Schoder, H, Gomez, D, Larson, SM, Tuttle, RM. 2008 Histopathologic characterization of radioactive iodine-refractory fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography-positive thyroid carcinoma Cancer 113:48–56.Google Scholar

Neff, RL, Farrar, WB, Kloos, RT, Burman, KD. 2008 Anaplastic thyroid cancer Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 37:525–38, xi.Google Scholar

Nagaiah, G, Hossain, A, Mooney, CJ, Parmentier, J, Remick, SC. 2011 Anaplastic thyroid cancer: a review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment J Oncol 2011:542358.Google Scholar

Smallridge, RC, Ain, KB, Asa, SL, Bible, KC, Brierley, JD, Burman, KD, Kebebew, E, Lee, NY, Nikiforov, YE, Rosenthal, MS, Shah, MH, Shaha, AR, Tuttle, RM. 2012 American Thyroid Association guidelines for management of patients with anaplastic thyroid cancer Thyroid 22:1104–1139.Google Scholar

Kebebew, E, Greenspan, FS, Clark, OH, Woeber, KA, McMillan, A. 2005 Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. Treatment outcome and prognostic factors Cancer 103:1330–1335.Google Scholar

Pelizzo, MR, Boschin, IM, Bernante, P, Toniato, A, Piotto, A, Pagetta, C, Nibale, O, Rampin, L, Muzzio, PC, Rubello, D. 2007 Natural history, diagnosis, treatment and outcome of medullary thyroid cancer: 37 years experience on 157 patients Eur J Surg Oncol 33:493–497.Google Scholar

Tuttle, RM, Ball, DW, Byrd, D, Daniels, GH, Dilawari, RA, Doherty, GM, Duh, QY, Ehya, H, Farrar, WB, Haddad, RI, Kandeel, F, Kloos, RT, Kopp, P, Lamonica, DM, Loree, TR, Lydiatt, WM, McCaffrey, J, Olson, JA Jr., Parks, L, Ridge, JA, Shah, JP, Sherman, SI, Sturgeon, C, Waguespack, SG, Wang, TN, Wirth, LJ. 2010 Medullary carcinoma J Natl Compr Canc Netw 8:512–530.Google Scholar

Block, MA, Jackson, CE, Greenawald, KA, Yott, JB, Tashjian, AH Jr. 1980 Clinical characteristics distinguishing hereditary from sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Treatment implications Arch Surg 115:142–148.Google Scholar

Eng, C, Clayton, D, Schuffenecker, I, Lenoir, G, Cote, G, Gagel, RF, van Amstel, HK, Lips, CJ, Nishisho, I, Takai, SI, Marsh, DJ, Robinson, BG, Frank-Raue, K, Raue, F, Xue, F, Noll, WW, Romei, C, Pacini, F, Fink, M, Niederle, B, Zedenius, J, Nordenskjold, M, Komminoth, P, Hendy, GN, Mulligan, LM, et al. 1996 The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. International RET mutation consortium analysis JAMA 276:1575–1579.Google Scholar

Cox, TM, Fagan, EA, Hillyard, CJ, Allison, DJ, Chadwick, VS. 1979 Role of calcitonin in diarrhoea associated with medullary carcinoma of the thyroid Gut 20:629–633.Google Scholar

Barbosa, SL, Rodien, P, Leboulleux, S, Niccoli-Sire, P, Kraimps, JL, Caron, P, Archambeaud-Mouveroux, F, Conte-Devolx, B, Rohmer, V. 2005 Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone-syndrome in medullary carcinoma of the thyroid: a retrospective analysis and review of the literature Thyroid 15:618–623.Google Scholar

Lee, M, Pellegata, NS. 2013 Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 4 Front Horm Res 41:63–78.Google Scholar

Hendy, GN, Cole, DE. 2013 Genetic defects associated with familial and sporadic hyperparathyroidism Front Horm Res 41:149–165.Google Scholar

Shah, R, Licata, A, Oyesiku, NM, Ioachimescu, AG. 2012 Acromegaly as a cause of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-dependent hypercalcemia: case reports and review of the literature Pituitary 15(suppl 1):S17–S22.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kimura, S, Nishimura, Y, Yamaguchi, K, Nagasaki, K, Shimada, K, Uchida, H. 1990 A case of pheochromocytoma producing parathyroid hormone-related protein and presenting with hypercalcemia J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70:1559–1563.Google Scholar

Walser, M, Robinson, BH, Duckett, JW Jr. 1963 The hypercalcemia of adrenal insufficiency J Clin Invest 42:456–465.Google Scholar

Montoli, A, Colussi, G, Minetti, L. 1992 Hypercalcaemia in Addison's disease: calciotropic hormone profile and bone histology J Intern Med 232:535–540.Google Scholar

Burman, KD, Monchik, JM, Earll, JM, Wartofsky, L. 1976 Ionized and total serum calcium and parathyroid hormone in hyperthyroidism Ann Intern Med 84:668–671.Google Scholar

Inzucchi, SE. 2004 Understanding hypercalcemia. Its metabolic basis, signs, and symptoms Postgrad Med 115:69–70, 3–6.Google Scholar

Peacock, M. 2002 Primary hyperparathyroidism and the kidney: biochemical and clinical spectrum J Bone Miner Res 17(suppl 2):N87–N94.Google Scholar

Roberts, WC, Waller, BF. 1981 Effect of chronic hypercalcemia on the heart. An analysis of 18 necropsy patients Am J Med 71:371–384.Google Scholar

Mosekilde, L. 2008 Primary hyperparathyroidism and the skeleton Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 69:1–19.Google Scholar

Berland, LL, Silverman, SG, Gore, RM, Mayo-Smith, WW, Megibow, AJ, Yee, J, Brink, JA, Baker, ME, Federle, MP, Foley, WD, Francis, IR, Herts, BR, Israel, GM, Krinsky, G, Platt, JF, Shuman, WP, Taylor, AJ. 2010 Managing incidental findings on abdominal CT: white paper of the ACR Incidental Findings Committee J Am Coll Radiol 7:754–773.Google Scholar

Song, JH, Chaudhry, FS, Mayo-Smith, WW. 2008 The incidental adrenal mass on CT: prevalence of adrenal disease in 1049 consecutive adrenal masses in patients with no known malignancy AJR Am J Roentgenol 190:1163–1168.Google Scholar

Sahdev, A, Reznek, RH. 2007 The indeterminate adrenal mass in patients with cancer Cancer Imaging 7(spec issue A):S100–S109.Google Scholar

Nieman, LK. 2010 Approach to the patient with an adrenal incidentaloma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95:4106–4113.Google Scholar

Gershuni, VM, Bittner, JG, Moley, JF, Brunt, LM. 2014 Adrenal myelolipoma: operative indications and outcomes J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 24:8–12.Google Scholar

Newell-Price, J, Trainer, P, Besser, M, Grossman, A. 1998 The diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome and pseudo-Cushing's states Endocr Rev 19:647–672.Google Scholar

Newell-Price, J, Bertagna, X, Grossman, AB, Nieman, LK. 2006 Cushing's syndrome Lancet 367:1605–1617.Google Scholar

Stratakis, CA. 2008 Cushing syndrome caused by adrenocortical tumors and hyperplasias (corticotropin-independent Cushing syndrome) Endocr Dev 13:117–132.Google Scholar

Yamada, Y, Sakaguchi, K, Inoue, T, Kubo, M, Fushimi, H, Sekii, K, Itatani, H, Tsujimura, T, Kameyama, M. 1997 Preclinical Cushing's syndrome due to adrenocorticotropin-independent bilateral adrenocortical macronodular hyperplasia with concurrent excess of gluco- and mineralocorticoids Intern Med 36:628–632.Google Scholar

Swain, JM, Grant, CS, Schlinkert, RT, Thompson, GB, vanHeerden, JA, Lloyd, RV, Young, WF. 1998 Corticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia: a clinicopathologic correlation Arch Surg 133:541–5; discussion 5–6.Google Scholar

Louiset, E, Duparc, C, Young, J, Renouf, S, Tetsi Nomigni, M, Boutelet, I, Libe, R, Bram, Z, Groussin, L, Caron, P, Tabarin, A, Grunenberger, F, Christin-Maitre, S, Bertagna, X, Kuhn, JM, Anouar, Y, Bertherat, J, Lefebvre, H. 2013 Intraadrenal corticotropin in bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia N Engl J Med 369:2115–2125.Google Scholar

Minami, S, Sugihara, H, Sato, J, Tatsukuchi, A, Sugisaki, Y, Sasano, H, Wakabayashi, I. 1996 ACTH independent Cushing's syndrome occurring in siblings Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 44:483–488.Google Scholar

Gagliardi, L, Hotu, C, Casey, G, Braund, WJ, Ling, KH, Dodd, T, Manavis, J, Devitt, PG, Cutfield, R, Rudzki, Z, Scott, HS, Torpy, DJ. 2009 Familial vasopressin-sensitive ACTH-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (VPs-AIMAH): clinical studies of three kindreds Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 70:883–891.Google Scholar

Vezzosi, D, Cartier, D, Regnier, C, Otal, P, Bennet, A, Parmentier, F, Plantavid, M, Lacroix, A, Lefebvre, H, Caron, P. 2007 Familial adrenocorticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia with aberrant serotonin and vasopressin adrenal receptors Eur J Endocrinol 156:21–31.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Assié, G, Libe, R, Espiard, S, Rizk-Rabin, M, Guimier, A, Luscap, W, Barreau, O, Lefevre, L, Sibony, M, Guignat, L, Rodriguez, S, Perlemoine, K, Rene-Corail, F, Letourneur, F, Trabulsi, B, Poussier, A, Chabbert-Buffet, N, Borson-Chazot, F, Groussin, L, Bertagna, X, Stratakis, CA, Ragazzon, B, Bertherat, J. 2013 ARMC5 mutations in macronodular adrenal hyperplasia with Cushing's syndrome N Engl J Med 369:2105–2114.Google Scholar

Gagliardi, L, Schreiber, AW, Hahn, CN, Feng, J, Cranston, T, Boon, H, Hotu, C, Oftedal, BE, Cutfield, R, Adelson, DL, Braund, WJ, Gordon, RD, Rees, DA, Grossman, AB, Torpy, DJ, Scott, HS. 2014 ARMC5 mutations are common in familial bilateral macronodular adrenal hyperplasia J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:E1784–1792.Google Scholar

Carney, JA, Gaillard, RC, Bertherat, J, Stratakis, CA. 2010 Familial micronodular adrenocortical disease, Cushing syndrome, and mutations of the gene encoding phosphodiesterase 11A4 (PDE11A) Am J Surg Pathol 34:547–555.Google Scholar

Conn, JW. 1955 Presidential address. I. Painting background. II. Primary aldosteronism, a new clinical syndrome J Lab Clin Med 45:3–17.Google Scholar

Conn, JW, Louis, LH. 1956 Primary aldosteronism, a new clinical entity Ann Intern Med 44:1–15.Google Scholar

Funder, JW, Carey, RM, Fardella, C, Gomez-Sanchez, CE, Mantero, F, Stowasser, M, Young, WF Jr., Montori, VM. 2008 Case detection, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with primary aldosteronism: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93:3266–3281.Google Scholar

Milan, A, Magnino, C, Fabbri, A, Chiarlo, M, Bruno, G, Losano, I, Veglio, F. 2012 Left heart morphology and function in primary aldosteronism High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prev 19:11–17.Google Scholar

Briet, M, Schiffrin, EL. 2010 Aldosterone: effects on the kidney and cardiovascular system Nat Rev Nephrol 6:261–273.Google Scholar

Young, WF. 2007 Primary aldosteronism: renaissance of a syndrome Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 66:607–618.Google Scholar

Zennaro, MC, Rickard, AJ, Boulkroun, S. 2013 Genetics of mineralocorticoid excess: an update for clinicians Eur J Endocrinol 169:R15–25.Google Scholar

Chao, CT, Wu, VC, Kuo, CC, Lin, YH, Chang, CC, Chueh, SJ, Wu, KD, Pimenta, E, Stowasser, M. 2013 Diagnosis and management of primary aldosteronism: an updated review Ann Med 45:375–383.Google Scholar

Carmina, E. 2006 Ovarian and adrenal hyperandrogenism Ann N Y Acad Sci 1092:130–137.Google Scholar

Stanczyk, FZ, Chang, L, Carmina, E, Putz, Z, Lobo, RA. 1991 Is 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione a better marker of adrenal androgen excess than dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate? Am J Obstet Gynecol 165:1837–1842.Google Scholar

McKenna, TJ, Cunningham, SK, Loughlin, T. 1985 The adrenal cortex and virilization Clin Endocrinol Metab 14:997–1020.Google Scholar

Waggoner, W, Boots, LR, Azziz, R. 1999 Total testosterone and DHEAS levels as predictors of androgen-secreting neoplasms: a populational study Gynecol Endocrinol 13:394–400.Google Scholar

Azziz, R, Sanchez, LA, Knochenhauer, ES, Moran, C, Lazenby, J, Stephens, KC, Taylor, K, Boots, LR. 2004 Androgen excess in women: experience with over 1000 consecutive patients J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:453–462.Google Scholar

Lolis, MS, Bowe, WP, Shalita, AR. 2009 Acne and systemic disease Med Clin North Am 93:1161–1181.Google Scholar

Azziz, R, Carmina, E, Dewailly, D, Diamanti-Kandarakis, E, Escobar-Morreale, HF, Futterweit, W, Janssen, OE, Legro, RS, Norman, RJ, Taylor, AE, Witchel, SF. 2009 The Androgen Excess and PCOS Society criteria for the polycystic ovary syndrome: the complete task force report Fertil Steril 91:456–488.Google Scholar

Alpanes, M, Gonzalez-Casbas, JM, Sanchez, J, Pian, H, Escobar-Morreale, HF. 2012 Management of postmenopausal virilization J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97:2584–2588.Google Scholar

Derksen, J, Nagesser, SK, Meinders, AE, Haak, HR, van de Velde, CJ. 1994 Identification of virilizing adrenal tumors in hirsute women N Engl J Med 331:968–973.Google Scholar

Koschker, AC, Fassnacht, M, Hahner, S, Weismann, D, Allolio, B. 2006 Adrenocortical carcinoma: improving patient care by establishing new structures Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 114:45–51.Google Scholar

Crucitti, F, Bellantone, R, Ferrante, A, Boscherini, M, Crucitti, P. 1996 The Italian Registry for Adrenal Cortical Carcinoma: analysis of a multiinstitutional series of 129 patients. The ACC Italian Registry Study Group Surgery 119:161–170.Google Scholar

Icard, P, Goudet, P, Charpenay, C, Andreassian, B, Carnaille, B, Chapuis, Y, Cougard, P, Henry, JF, Proye, C. 2001 Adrenocortical carcinomas: surgical trends and results of a 253-patient series from the French Association of Endocrine Surgeons study group World J Surg 25:891–897.Google Scholar

Ayala-Ramirez, M, Jasim, S, Feng, L, Ejaz, S, Deniz, F, Busaidy, N, Waguespack, SG, Naing, A, Sircar, K, Wood, CG, Pagliaro, L, Jimenez, C, Vassilopoulou-Sellin, R, Habra, MA. 2013 Adrenocortical carcinoma: clinical outcomes and prognosis of 330 patients at a tertiary care center Eur J Endocrinol 169:891–899.Google Scholar

Abiven, G, Coste, J, Groussin, L, Anract, P, Tissier, F, Legmann, P, Dousset, B, Bertagna, X, Bertherat, J. 2006 Clinical and biological features in the prognosis of adrenocortical cancer: poor outcome of cortisol-secreting tumors in a series of 202 consecutive patients J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:2650–2655.Google Scholar

European Network for Adrenal Tumors. http://www.ensat.org/, accessed 4 September 2015.Google Scholar

Taal, BG, Visser, O. 2004 Epidemiology of neuroendocrine tumours Neuroendocrinology 80(suppl 1):3–7.Google Scholar

Kulke, MH, Benson, AB, 3rd, Bergsland, E, Berlin, JD, Blaszkowsky, LS, Choti, MA, Clark, OH, Doherty, GM, Eason, J, Emerson, L, Engstrom, PF, Goldner, WS, Heslin, MJ, Kandeel, F, Kunz, PL, Kuvshinoff, BW, 2nd, Moley, JF, Pillarisetty, VG, Saltz, L, Schteingart, DE, Shah, MH, Shibata, S, Strosberg, JR, Vauthey, JN, White, R, Yao, JC, Freedman-Cass, DA, Dwyer, MA. 2012 Neuroendocrine tumors J Natl Compr Canc Netw 10:724–764.Google Scholar

Jensen, RT, Cadiot, G, Brandi, ML, de Herder, WW, Kaltsas, G, Komminoth, P, Scoazec, JY, Salazar, R, Sauvanet, A, Kianmanesh, R. 2012 ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with digestive neuroendocrine neoplasms: functional pancreatic endocrine tumor syndromes Neuroendocrinology 95:98–119.Google Scholar

Delle Fave, G, Kwekkeboom, DJ, Van Cutsem, E, Rindi, G, Kos-Kudla, B, Knigge, U, Sasano, H, Tomassetti, P, Salazar, R, Ruszniewski, P. 2012 ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with gastroduodenal neoplasms Neuroendocrinology 95:74–87.Google Scholar

Pape, UF, Perren, A, Niederle, B, Gross, D, Gress, T, Costa, F, Arnold, R, Denecke, T, Plöckinger, U, Salazar, R, Grossman, A. 2012 ENETS Consensus Guidelines for the management of patients with neuroendocrine neoplasms from the jejuno-ileum and the appendix including goblet cell carcinomas Neuroendocrinology 95:135–156.Google Scholar

Fesinmeyer, MD, Austin, MA, Li, CI, De Roos, AJ, Bowen, DJ. 2005 Differences in survival by histologic type of pancreatic cancer Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14:1766–1773.Google Scholar

Mullan, MH, Gauger, PG, Thompson, NW. 2001 Endocrine tumours of the pancreas: review and recent advances ANZ J Surg 71:475–482.Google Scholar

Halfdanarson, TR, Rabe, KG, Rubin, J, Petersen, GM. 2008 Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (PNETs): incidence, prognosis and recent trend toward improved survival Ann Oncol 19:1727–1733.Google Scholar

Blansfield, JA, Choyke, L, Morita, SY, Choyke, PL, Pingpank, JF, Alexander, HR, Seidel, G, Shutack, Y, Yuldasheva, N, Eugeni, M, Bartlett, DL, Glenn, GM, Middelton, L, Linehan, WM, Libutti, SK. 2007 Clinical, genetic and radiographic analysis of 108 patients with von Hippel–Lindau disease (VHL) manifested by pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (PNETs) Surgery 142:814–818; discussion 8e1–2.Google Scholar

Almeida, MQ, Stratakis, CA. 2010 Solid tumors associated with multiple endocrine neoplasias Cancer Genet Cytogenet 203:30–36.Google Scholar

Chen, M, Van Ness, M, Guo, Y, Gregg, J. 2012 Molecular pathology of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors J Gastrointest Oncol 3 182–188.Google Scholar

Goncalves, TD, Toledo, RA, Sekiya, T, Matuguma, SE, Maluf Filho, F, Rocha, MS, Siqueira, SA, Glezer, A, Bronstein, MD, Pereira Ricardo Jureidini, MA, Bacchella, T, Machado, MC, Toledo, SP, Lourenco, DM Jr. 2014 Penetrance of functioning and non-functioning pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 in the second decade of life J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99:E89–E96.Google Scholar

Zhang, J, Francois, R, Iyer, R, Seshadri, M, Zajac-Kaye, M, Hochwald, SN. 2013 Current understanding of the molecular biology of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors J Natl Cancer Inst 105:1005–1017.Google Scholar

Nesi, G, Marcucci, T, Rubio, CA, Brandi, ML, Tonelli, F. 2008 Somatostatinoma: clinico-pathological features of three cases and literature reviewed J Gastroenterol Hepatol 23:521–526.Google Scholar

Bilimoria, KY, Tomlinson, JS, Merkow, RP, Stewart, AK, Ko, CY, Talamonti, MS, Bentrem, DJ. 2007 Clinicopathologic features and treatment trends of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors: analysis of 9821 patients J Gastrointest Surg 11:1460–1467; discussion 7–9.Google Scholar

Franko, J, Feng, W, Yip, L, Genovese, E, Moser, AJ. 2010 Non-functional neuroendocrine carcinoma of the pancreas: incidence, tumor biology, and outcomes in 2158 patients J Gastrointest Surg 14:541–548.Google Scholar

Metz, DC, Jensen, RT. 2008 Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors: pancreatic endocrine tumors Gastroenterology 135:1469–1492.Google Scholar

DeLellis, RA. 1999 The hereditary forms of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors Adv Anat Pathol 6:149–153.Google Scholar

Musso, C, Paraf, F, Petit, B, Archambeaud-Mouveroux, F, Valleix, D, Labrousse, F. 2000 [Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors and von Hippel–Lindau disease.] Ann Pathol 20:130–133.Google Scholar

Fraenkel, M, Kim, MK, Faggiano, A, Valk, GD. 2012 Epidemiology of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 26:691–703.Google Scholar

Service, FJ, McMahon, MM, O'Brien, PC, Ballard, DJ. 1991 Functioning insulinoma: incidence, recurrence, and long-term survival of patients: a 60-year study Mayo Clin Proc 66:711–719.Google Scholar

Service, FJ, Dale, AJ, Elveback, LR, Jiang, NS. 1976 Insulinoma: clinical and diagnostic features of 60 consecutive cases Mayo Clin Proc 51:417–429.Google Scholar

Vaidakis, D, Karoubalis, J, Pappa, T, Piaditis, G, Zografos, GN. 2010 Pancreatic insulinoma: current issues and trends Hepatob Pancreat Dis Int 9:234–241.Google Scholar

Service, FJ. 1995 Hypoglycemic disorders N Engl J Med 332:1144–1152.Google Scholar

Placzkowski, KA, Vella, A, Thompson, GB, Grant, CS, Reading, CC, Charboneau, JW, Andrews, JC, Lloyd, RV, Service, FJ. 2009 Secular trends in the presentation and management of functioning insulinoma at the Mayo Clinic, 1987–2007 J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:1069–1073.Google Scholar

Service, FJ, Natt, N, Thompson, GB, Grant, CS, van Heerden, JA, Andrews, JC, Lorenz, E, Terzic, A, Lloyd, RV. 1999 Noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia: a novel syndrome of hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in adults independent of mutations in Kir6.2 and SUR1 genes J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:1582–1589.Google Scholar

Cryer, PE, Axelrod, L, Grossman, AB, Heller, SR, Montori, VM, Seaquist, ER, Service, FJ. 2009 Evaluation and management of adult hypoglycemic disorders: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:709–728.Google Scholar

Vanderveen, K, Grant, C. 2010 Insulinoma Cancer Treat Res 153:235–252.Google Scholar

Whipple, AO, Frantz, VK. 1935 Adenoma of islet cells with hyperinsulinism: a review Ann Surg 101:1299–1335.Google Scholar

Whipple, AO. 1952 Islet cell tumors of the pancreas CMAJ 66:334–342.Google Scholar

Lupsa, BC, Chong, AY, Cochran, EK, Soos, MA, Semple, RK, Gorden, P. 2009 Autoimmune forms of hypoglycemia Medicine (Baltimore) 88:141–153.Google Scholar

Zollinger, RM, Ellison, EH. 1955 Primary peptic ulcerations of the jejunum associated with islet cell tumors of the pancreas Ann Surg 142:709–23; discussion, 24–28.Google Scholar

Ellison, EH, Wilson, SD. 1964 The Zollinger–Ellison syndrome: re-appraisal and evaluation of 260 registered cases Ann Surg 160:512–530.Google Scholar

Maton, PN, Mackem, SM, Norton, JA, Gardner, JD, O'Dorisio, TM, Jensen, RT. 1989 Ovarian carcinoma as a cause of Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Natural history, secretory products, and response to provocative tests Gastroenterology 97:468–471.Google Scholar

Gibril, F, Curtis, LT, Termanini, B, Fritsch, MK, Lubensky, IA, Doppman, JL, Jensen, RT. 1997 Primary cardiac gastrinoma causing Zollinger–Ellison syndrome Gastroenterology 112:567–574.Google Scholar

Ellison, EC, Johnson, JA. 2009 The Zollinger–Ellison syndrome: a comprehensive review of historical, scientific, and clinical considerations Curr Probl Surg 46:13–106.Google Scholar

Roy, PK, Venzon, DJ, Shojamanesh, H, Abou-Saif, A, Peghini, P, Doppman, JL, Gibril, F, Jensen, RT. 2000 Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Clinical presentation in 261 patients Medicine (Baltimore) 79:379–411.Google Scholar

Ito, T, Igarashi, H, Uehara, H, Jensen, RT. 2013 Pharmacotherapy of Zollinger–Ellison syndrome Exp Opin Pharmacother 14:307–321.Google Scholar

Dhillo, WS, Jayasena, CN, Lewis, CJ, Martin, NM, Tang, KC, Meeran, K, Todd, JF. 2006 Plasma gastrin measurement cannot be used to diagnose a gastrinoma in patients on either proton pump inhibitors or histamine type-2 receptor antagonists Ann Clin Biochem 43:153–155.Google Scholar

Poitras, P, Gingras, MH, Rehfeld, JF. 2012 The Zollinger–Ellison syndrome: dangers and consequences of interrupting antisecretory treatment Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 10:199–202.Google Scholar

Jensen, RT, Niederle, B, Mitry, E, Ramage, JK, Steinmuller, T, Lewington, V, Scarpa, A, Sundin, A, Perren, A, Gross, D, O'Connor, JM, Pauwels, S, Kloppel, G Frascati Consensus Conference, European Neuroendocrine Tumor Society 2006 Gastrinoma (duodenal and pancreatic) Neuroendocrinology 84:173–182.Google Scholar

Ito, T, Cadiot, G, Jensen, RT. 2012 Diagnosis of Zollinger–Ellison syndrome: increasingly difficult World J Gastroenterol 18:5495–5503.Google Scholar

Mallinson, CN, Bloom, SR, Warin, AP, Salmon, PR, Cox, B. 1974 A glucagonoma syndrome Lancet ii:1–5.Google Scholar

Wermers, RA, Fatourechi, V, Wynne, AG, Kvols, LK, Lloyd, RV. 1996 The glucagonoma syndrome. Clinical and pathologic features in 21 patients Medicine (Baltimore) 75:53–63.Google Scholar

Chastain, MA. 2001 The glucagonoma syndrome: a review of its features and discussion of new perspectives Am J Med Sci 321:306–320.Google Scholar

Eldor, R, Glaser, B, Fraenkel, M, Doviner, V, Salmon, A, Gross, DJ. 2011 Glucagonoma and the glucagonoma syndrome: cumulative experience with an elusive endocrine tumour Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 74:593–598.Google Scholar

van Beek, AP, de Haas, ER, van Vloten, WA, Lips, CJ, Roijers, JF, Canninga van Dijk, MR. 2004 The glucagonoma syndrome and necrolytic migratory erythema: a clinical review Eur J Endocrinol 151:531–537.Google Scholar

Zhang, M, Xu, X, Shen, Y, Hu, ZH, Wu, LM, Zheng, SS. 2004 Clinical experience in diagnosis and treatment of glucagonoma syndrome Hepatob Pancreat Dis Int 3:473–475.Google Scholar

Verner, JV, Morrison, AB. 1958 Islet cell tumor and a syndrome of refractory watery diarrhea and hypokalemia Am J Med 25:374–380.Google Scholar

Bloom, SR, Polak, JM, Pearse, AG. 1973 Vasoactive intestinal peptide and watery-diarrhoea syndrome Lancet ii:14–16.Google Scholar

Soga, J, Yakuwa, Y. 1998 Vipoma/diarrheogenic syndrome: a statistical evaluation of 241 reported cases J Exp Clin Cancer Res 17:389–400.Google Scholar

Krejs, GJ, Orci, L, Conlon, JM, Ravazzola, M, Davis, GR, Raskin, P, Collins, SM, McCarthy, DM, Baetens, D, Rubenstein, A, Aldor, TA, Unger, RH. 1979 Somatostatinoma syndrome. Biochemical, morphologic and clinical features N Engl J Med 301:285–292.Google Scholar

Tanaka, S, Yamasaki, S, Matsushita, H, Ozawa, Y, Kurosaki, A, Takeuchi, K, Hoshihara, Y, Doi, T, Watanabe, G, Kawaminami, K. 2000 Duodenal somatostatinoma: a case report and review of 31 cases with special reference to the relationship between tumor size and metastasis Pathol Int 50:146–152.Google Scholar

Gustafsson, BI, Kidd, M, Chan, A, Malfertheiner, MV, Modlin, IM. 2008 Bronchopulmonary neuroendocrine tumors Cancer 113:5–21.Google Scholar

Melmed, S, Ezrin, C, Kovacs, K, Goodman, RS, Frohman, LA. 1985 Acromegaly due to secretion of growth hormone by an ectopic pancreatic islet-cell tumor N Engl J Med 312:9–17.Google Scholar

Ezzat, S, Ezrin, C, Yamashita, S, Melmed, S. 1993 Recurrent acromegaly resulting from ectopic growth hormone gene expression by a metastatic pancreatic tumor Cancer 71:66–70.Google Scholar

Beuschlein, F, Strasburger, CJ, Siegerstetter, V, Moradpour, D, Lichter, P, Bidlingmaier, M, Blum, HE, Reincke, M. 2000 Acromegaly caused by secretion of growth hormone by a non-Hodgkin's lymphoma N Engl J Med 342:1871–1876.Google Scholar

Wajchenberg, BL, Mendonca, B, Liberman, B, Adelaide, M, Pereira, A, Kirschner, MA. 1995 Ectopic ACTH syndrome J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 53:139–151.Google Scholar

Ilias, I, Torpy, DJ, Pacak, K, Mullen, N, Wesley, RA, Nieman, LK. 2005 Cushing's syndrome due to ectopic corticotropin secretion: twenty years' experience at the National Institutes of Health J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90:4955–4962.Google Scholar

Isidori, AM, Kaltsas, GA, Pozza, C, Frajese, V, Newell-Price, J, Reznek, RH, Jenkins, PJ, Monson, JP, Grossman, AB, Besser, GM. 2006 The ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome: clinical features, diagnosis, management, and long-term follow-up J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:371–377.Google Scholar

Park, SY, Rhee, Y, Youn, JC, Park, YN, Lee, S, Kim, DM, Song, SY, Lim, SK. 2007 Ectopic Cushing's syndrome due to concurrent corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted by malignant gastrinoma Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 115:13–16.Google Scholar

Ejaz, S, Vassilopoulou-Sellin, R, Busaidy, NL, Hu, MI, Waguespack, SG, Jimenez, C, Ying, AK, Cabanillas, M, Abbara, M, Habra, MA. 2011 Cushing syndrome secondary to ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion: the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Experience Cancer 117:4381–4389.Google Scholar

Ballav, C, Naziat, A, Mihai, R, Karavitaki, N, Ansorge, O, Grossman, AB. 2012 Mini-review: pheochromocytomas causing the ectopic ACTH syndrome Endocrine 42:69–73.Google Scholar

Carey, RM, Varma, SK, Drake, CR Jr., Thorner, MO, Kovacs, K, Rivier, J, Vale, W. 1984 Ectopic secretion of corticotropin-releasing factor as a cause of Cushing's syndrome. A clinical, morphologic, and biochemical study N Engl J Med 311:13–20.Google Scholar

Shahani, S, Nudelman, RJ, Nalini, R, Kim, HS, Samson, SL. 2010 Ectopic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) syndrome from metastatic small cell carcinoma: a case report and review of the literature Diagn Pathol 5:56.Google Scholar

White, A, Clark, AJ. 1993 The cellular and molecular basis of the ectopic ACTH syndrome Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 39:131–141.Google Scholar

Howlett, TA, Drury, PL, Perry, L, Doniach, I, Rees, LH, Besser, GM. 1986 Diagnosis and management of ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome: comparison of the features in ectopic and pituitary ACTH production Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 24:699–713.Google Scholar

Sorensen, JB, Andersen, MK, Hansen, HH. 1995 Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) in malignant disease J Intern Med 238:97–110.Google Scholar

Adrogue, HJ, Madias, NE. 2000 Hyponatremia N Engl J Med 342:1581–1589.Google Scholar

Vantyghem, MC, Balavoine, AS, Wemeau, JL, Douillard, C. 2011 Hyponatremia and antidiuresis syndrome Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 72:500–512.Google Scholar

Castillo, JJ, Vincent, M, Justice, E. 2012 Diagnosis and management of hyponatremia in cancer patients Oncologist 17:756–765.Google Scholar

Cassidy, MA. 1930 Abdominal carcinomatosis, with probable adrenal involvement Proc R Soc Med 24:139–141.Google Scholar

Cassidy, MA. 1931 Post-mortem findings in case shown on October 10, 1930, as one of abdominal carcinomatosis with probable adrenal involvement Proc R Soc Med 24:920–921.Google Scholar

Moller, JE, Connolly, HM, Rubin, J, Seward, JB, Modesto, K, Pellikka, PA. 2003 Factors associated with progression of carcinoid heart disease N Engl J Med 348:1005–1015.Google Scholar

Cunningham, JL, Janson, ET, Agarwal, S, Grimelius, L, Stridsberg, M. 2008 Tachykinins in endocrine tumors and the carcinoid syndrome Eur J Endocrinol 159:275–282.Google Scholar

Oates, JA, Pettinger, WA, Doctor, RB. 1966 Evidence for the release of bradykinin in carcinoid syndrome J Clin Invest 45:173–178.Google Scholar

Sandler, M, Karim, SM, Williams, ED. 1968 Prostaglandins in amine-peptide-secreting tumours Lancet ii:1053–1054.Google Scholar

Pellikka, PA, Tajik, AJ, Khandheria, BK, Seward, JB, Callahan, JA, Pitot, HC, Kvols, LK. 1993 Carcinoid heart disease. Clinical and echocardiographic spectrum in 74 patients Circulation 87:1188–1196.Google Scholar

Nelson, JM, Mahoney, JP, Ryden, SE. 1980 Midgut carcinoid tumor with carcinoid heart disease. Its presence in the absence of hepatic metastases: a case report Arch Pathol Lab Med 104:428–431.Google Scholar

Feldman, JM, Jones, RS. 1982 Carcinoid syndrome from gastrointestinal carcinoids without liver metastasis Ann Surg 196:33–37.Google Scholar

Haq, AU, Yook, CR, Hiremath, V, Kasimis, BS. 1992 Carcinoid syndrome in the absence of liver metastasis: a case report and review of literature Med Pediatr Oncol 20:221–223.Google Scholar

Anderson, AS, Krauss, D, Lang, R. 1997 Cardiovascular complications of malignant carcinoid disease Am Heart J 134:693–702.Google Scholar

Bernheim, AM, Connolly, HM, Pellikka, PA. 2007 Carcinoid heart disease in patients without hepatic metastases Am J Cardiol 99:292–294.Google Scholar

Palaniswamy, C, Frishman, WH, Aronow, WS. 2012 Carcinoid heart disease Cardiol Rev 20:167–176.Google Scholar

Roberts, WC, Sjoerdsma, A. 1964 The cardiac disease associated with the carcinoid syndrome (carcinoid heart disease) Am J Med 36:5–34.Google Scholar

Druce, M, Rockall, A, Grossman, AB. 2009 Fibrosis and carcinoid syndrome: from causation to future therapy Nat Rev Endocrinol 5:276–283.Google Scholar

Hellman, P, Lundstrom, T, Ohrvall, U, Eriksson, B, Skogseid, B, Oberg, K, Tiensuu Janson, E, Akerstrom, G. 2002 Effect of surgery on the outcome of midgut carcinoid disease with lymph node and liver metastases World J Surg 26:991–997.Google Scholar

Tischler, AS. 2008 Pheochromocytoma and extra-adrenal paraganglioma: updates Arch Pathol Lab Med 132:1272–1284.Google Scholar

McNicol, AM. 2010 Adrenal medulla and paraganglia. In Lloyd, RV, ed. Endocrine Pathology: Differential Diagnosis and Molecular Advances. New York: Springer, pp. 281–295.Google Scholar

Lack, EE. 2007 Atlas of Tumor Pathology, 4th Series, Fascicle 8: Tumors of the Adrenal Glands and Extraadrenal Paraganglia. Bethesda, MD: ARP Press, 2007.Google Scholar

Asa, SL, Fischer, SE. 2010 Adrenal gland. In Gattuso, P, Reddy, VB, David, O, Spitz, DJ, Haber, MH eds. Differential Diagnosis in Surgical Pathology. 2nd edn. New York: Elsevier-Saunders, pp. 461–485.Google Scholar

Stenstrom, G, Svardsudd, K. 1986 Pheochromocytoma in Sweden 1958–1981. An analysis of the National Cancer Registry Data Acta Med Scand 220:225–232.Google Scholar

Fernandez-Calvet, L, Garcia-Mayor, RV. 1994 Incidence of pheochromocytoma in South Galicia, Spain J Intern Med 236:675–677.Google Scholar

Neumann, HP, Bausch, B, McWhinney, SR, Bender, BU, Gimm, O, Franke, G, Schipper, J, Klisch, J, Altehoefer, C, Zerres, K, Januszewicz, A, Eng, C, Smith, WM, Munk, R, Manz, T, Glaesker, S, Apel, TW, Treier, M, Reineke, M, Walz, MK, Hoang-Vu, C, Brauckhoff, M, Klein-Franke, A, Klose, P, Schmidt, H, Maier-Woelfle, M, Peczkowska, M, Szmigielski, C. 2002 Germ-line mutations in nonsyndromic pheochromocytoma N Engl J Med 346:1459–1466.Google Scholar

Mannelli, M, Castellano, M, Schiavi, F, Filetti, S, Giacche, M, Mori, L, Pignataro, V, Bernini, G, Giache, V, Bacca, A, Biondi, B, Corona, G, Di Trapani, G, Grossrubatscher, E, Reimondo, G, Arnaldi, G, Giacchetti, G, Veglio, F, Loli, P, Colao, A, Ambrosio, MR, Terzolo, M, Letizia, C, Ercolino, T, Opocher, G. 2009 Clinically guided genetic screening in a large cohort of italian patients with pheochromocytomas and/or functional or nonfunctional paragangliomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94:1541–1547.Google Scholar

Sinclair, AM, Isles, CG, Brown, I, Cameron, H, Murray, GD, Robertson, JW. 1987 Secondary hypertension in a blood pressure clinic Arch Intern Med 147:1289–1293.Google Scholar

Omura, M, Saito, J, Yamaguchi, K, Kakuta, Y, Nishikawa, T. 2004 Prospective study on the prevalence of secondary hypertension among hypertensive patients visiting a general outpatient clinic in Japan Hypertens Res 27:193–202.Google Scholar

Mulligan, LM, Kwok, JB, Healey, CS, Elsdon, MJ, Eng, C, Gardner, E, Love, DR, Mole, SE, Moore, JK, Papi, L, et al. 1993 Germ-line mutations of the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A Nature 363:458–460.Google Scholar

Donis-Keller, H, Dou, S, Chi, D, Carlson, KM, Toshima, K, Lairmore, TC, Howe, JR, Moley, JF, Goodfellow, P, Wells, SA Jr. 1993 Mutations in the RET proto-oncogene are associated with MEN 2A and FMTC Hum Mol Genet 2:851–856.Google Scholar

Carlson, KM, Dou, S, Chi, D, Scavarda, N, Toshima, K, Jackson, CE, Wells, SA Jr., Goodfellow, PJ, Donis-Keller, H. 1994 Single missense mutation in the tyrosine kinase catalytic domain of the RET protooncogene is associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:1579–1583.Google Scholar

Horton, WA, Wong, V, Eldridge, R. 1976 Von Hippel–Lindau disease: clinical and pathological manifestations in nine families with 50 affected members Arch Intern Med 136:769–777.Google Scholar

Chen, F, Slife, L, Kishida, T, Mulvihill, J, Tisherman, SE, Zbar, B. 1996 Genotype–phenotype correlation in von Hippel–Lindau disease: identification of a mutation associated with VHL type 2A J. Med Genet 33:716–717.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Riccardi, VM. 1989 Neurofibromatosis update Neurofibromatosis 2:284–291.Google Scholar

Xu, W, Mulligan, LM, Ponder, MA, Liu, L, Smith, BA, Mathew, CG, Ponder, BA. 1992 Loss of NF1 alleles in phaeochromocytomas from patients with type I neurofibromatosis Genes Chromosomes Cancer 4:337–342.Google Scholar

Burnichon, N, Briere, JJ, Libe, R, Vescovo, L, Riviere, J, Tissier, F, Jouanno, E, Jeunemaitre, X, Benit, P, Tzagoloff, A, Rustin, P, Bertherat, J, Favier, J, Gimenez-Roqueplo, AP. 2010 SDHA is a tumor suppressor gene causing paraganglioma Hum Mol Genet 19:3011–3020.Google Scholar

Astuti, D, Latif, F, Dallol, A, Dahia, PL, Douglas, F, George, E, Skoldberg, F, Husebye, ES, Eng, C, Maher, ER. 2001 Gene mutations in the succinate dehydrogenase subunit SDHB cause susceptibility to familial pheochromocytoma and to familial paraganglioma Am J Hum Genet 69:49–54.Google Scholar

Niemann, S, Muller, U. 2000 Mutations in SDHC cause autosomal dominant paraganglioma, type 3. Nat Genet 26:268–270.Google Scholar

Baysal, BE, Ferrell, RE, Willett-Brozick, JE, Lawrence, EC, Myssiorek, D, Bosch, A, van der Mey, A, Taschner, PE, Rubinstein, WS, Myers, EN, Richard, CW, 3rd, Cornelisse, CJ, Devilee, P, Devlin, B. 2000 Mutations in SDHD, a mitochondrial complex II gene, in hereditary paraganglioma Science 287:848–851.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Baysal, BE, Willett-Brozick, JE, Lawrence, EC, Drovdlic, CM, Savul, SA, McLeod, DR, Yee, HA, Brackmann, DE, Slattery, WH, 3rd, Myers, EN, Ferrell, RE, Rubinstein, WS. 2002 Prevalence of SDHB, SDHC, and SDHD germline mutations in clinic patients with head and neck paragangliomas J Med Genet 39:178–183.Google Scholar

Hao, HX, Khalimonchuk, O, Schraders, M, Dephoure, N, Bayley, JP, Kunst, H, Devilee, P, Cremers, CW, Schiffman, JD, Bentz, BG, Gygi, SP, Winge, DR, Kremer, H, Rutter, J. 2009 SDH5, a gene required for flavination of succinate dehydrogenase, is mutated in paraganglioma Science 325:1139–1142.Google Scholar

Bayley, JP, Kunst, HP, Cascon, A, Sampietro, ML, Gaal, J, Korpershoek, E, Hinojar-Gutierrez, A, Timmers, HJ, Hoefsloot, LH, Hermsen, MA, Suarez, C, Hussain, AK, Vriends, AH, Hes, FJ, Jansen, JC, Tops, CM, Corssmit, EP, de Knijff, P, Lenders, JW, Cremers, CW, Devilee, P, Dinjens, WN, de Krijger, RR, Robledo, M. 2010 SDHAF2 mutations in familial and sporadic paraganglioma and phaeochromocytoma Lancet Oncol 11:366–372.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Comino-Mendez, I, Gracia-Aznarez, FJ, Schiavi, F, Landa, I, Leandro-Garcia, LJ, Leton, R, Honrado, E, Ramos-Medina, R, Caronia, D, Pita, G, Gomez-Grana, A, de Cubas, AA, Inglada-Perez, L, Maliszewska, A, Taschin, E, Bobisse, S, Pica, G, Loli, P, Hernandez-Lavado, R, Diaz, JA, Gomez-Morales, M, Gonzalez-Neira, A, Roncador, G, Rodriguez-Antona, C, Benitez, J, Mannelli, M, Opocher, G, Robledo, M, Cascon, A. 2011 Exome sequencing identifies MAX mutations as a cause of hereditary pheochromocytoma Nat Genet 43:663–667.Google Scholar

Burnichon, N, Cascon, A, Schiavi, F, Morales, NP, Comino-Mendez, I, Abermil, N, Inglada-Perez, L, de Cubas, AA, Amar, L, Barontini, M, de Quiros, SB, Bertherat, J, Bignon, YJ, Blok, MJ, Bobisse, S, Borrego, S, Castellano, M, Chanson, P, Chiara, MD, Corssmit, EP, Giacche, M, de Krijger, RR, Ercolino, T, Girerd, X, Gomez-Garcia, EB, Gomez-Grana, A, Guilhem, I, Hes, FJ, Honrado, E, Korpershoek, E, Lenders, JW, Leton, R, Mensenkamp, AR, Merlo, A, Mori, L, Murat, A, Pierre, P, Plouin, PF, Prodanov, T, Quesada-Charneco, M, Qin, N, Rapizzi, E, Raymond, V, Reisch, N, Roncador, G, Ruiz-Ferrer, M, Schillo, F, Stegmann, AP, Suarez, C, Taschin, E, Timmers, HJ, Tops, CM, Urioste, M, Beuschlein, F, Pacak, K, Mannelli, M, Dahia, PL, Opocher, G, Eisenhofer, G, Gimenez-Roqueplo, AP, Robledo, M. 2012 MAX mutations cause hereditary and sporadic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma Clin Cancer Res 18:2828–2837.Google Scholar

Qin, Y, Yao, L, King, EE, Buddavarapu, K, Lenci, RE, Chocron, ES, Lechleiter, JD, Sass, M, Aronin, N, Schiavi, F, Boaretto, F, Opocher, G, Toledo, RA, Toledo, SP, Stiles, C, Aguiar, RC, Dahia, PL. 2010 Germline mutations in TMEM127 confer susceptibility to pheochromocytoma Nat Genet 42:229–233.Google Scholar

Yao, L, Schiavi, F, Cascon, A, Qin, Y, Inglada-Perez, L, King, EE, Toledo, RA, Ercolino, T, Rapizzi, E, Ricketts, CJ, Mori, L, Giacche, M, Mendola, A, Taschin, E, Boaretto, F, Loli, P, Iacobone, M, Rossi, GP, Biondi, B, Lima-Junior, JV, Kater, CE, Bex, M, Vikkula, M, Grossman, AB, Gruber, SB, Barontini, M, Persu, A, Castellano, M, Toledo, SP, Maher, ER, Mannelli, M, Opocher, G, Robledo, M, Dahia, PL. 2010 Spectrum and prevalence of FP/TMEM127 gene mutations in pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas JAMA 304:2611–2619.Google Scholar

Neumann, HP, Berger, DP, Sigmund, G, Blum, U, Schmidt, D, Parmer, RJ, Volk, B, Kirste, G. 1993 Pheochromocytomas, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2, and von Hippel–Lindau disease N Engl J Med 329:1531–1538.Google Scholar

Amar, L, Bertherat, J, Baudin, E, Ajzenberg, C, Bressac de Paillerets, B, Chabre, O, Chamontin, B, Delemer, B, Giraud, S, Murat, A, Niccoli-Sire, P, Richard, S, Rohmer, V, Sadoul, JL, Strompf, L, Schlumberger, M, Bertagna, X, Plouin, PF, Jeunemaitre, X, Gimenez-Roqueplo, AP. 2005 Genetic testing in pheochromocytoma or functional paraganglioma J Clin Oncol 23:8812–8818.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dahia, PL. 2014 Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma pathogenesis: learning from genetic heterogeneity Nat Rev Cancer 14:108–119.Google Scholar

Eisenhofer, G, Walther, MM, Huynh, TT, Li, ST, Bornstein, SR, Vortmeyer, A, Mannelli, M, Goldstein, DS, Linehan, WM, Lenders, JW, Pacak, K. 2001 Pheochromocytomas in von Hippel–Lindau syndrome and multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 display distinct biochemical and clinical phenotypes J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:1999–2008.Google Scholar

Nielsen, SM, Rubinstein, WS, Thull, DL, Armstrong, MJ, Feingold, E, Stang, MT, Gnarra, JR, Carty, SE. 2011 Genotype–phenotype correlations of pheochromocytoma in two large von Hippel–Lindau (VHL) type 2A kindreds with different missense mutations Am J Med Genet A 155A 168–173.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Baghai, M, Thompson, GB, Young, WF Jr., Grant, CS, Michels, VV, van Heerden, JA. 2002 Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas in von Hippel–Lindau disease: a role for laparoscopic and cortical-sparing surgery Arch Surg 137:682–8; discussion 8–9.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ayala-Ramirez, M, Feng, L, Johnson, MM, Ejaz, S, Habra, MA, Rich, T, Busaidy, N, Cote, GJ, Perrier, N, Phan, A, Patel, S, Waguespack, S, Jimenez, C. 2011 Clinical risk factors for malignancy and overall survival in patients with pheochromocytomas and sympathetic paragangliomas: primary tumor size and primary tumor location as prognostic indicators J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96:717–725.Google Scholar

Eisenhofer, G, Lenders, JW, Timmers, H, Mannelli, M, Grebe, SK, Hofbauer, LC, Bornstein, SR, Tiebel, O, Adams, K, Bratslavsky, G, Linehan, WM, Pacak, K. 2011 Measurements of plasma methoxytyramine, normetanephrine, and metanephrine as discriminators of different hereditary forms of pheochromocytoma Clin Chem 57:411–420.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Neumann, HP, Pawlu, C, Peczkowska, M, Bausch, B, McWhinney, SR, Muresan, M, Buchta, M, Franke, G, Klisch, J, Bley, TA, Hoegerle, S, Boedeker, CC, Opocher, G, Schipper, J, Januszewicz, A, Eng, C. 2004 Distinct clinical features of paraganglioma syndromes associated with SDHB and SDHD gene mutations JAMA 292:943–951.Google Scholar

Ricketts, CJ, Forman, JR, Rattenberry, E, Bradshaw, N, Lalloo, F, Izatt, L, Cole, TR, Armstrong, R, Kumar, VK, Morrison, PJ, Atkinson, AB, Douglas, F, Ball, SG, Cook, J, Srirangalingam, U, Killick, P, Kirby, G, Aylwin, S, Woodward, ER, Evans, DG, Hodgson, SV, Murday, V, Chew, SL, Connell, JM, Blundell, TL, Macdonald, F, Maher, ER. 2010 Tumor risks and genotype–phenotype-proteotype analysis in 358 patients with germline mutations in SDHB and SDHD Hum Mutat 31:41–51.Google Scholar

Kunst, HP, Rutten, MH, de Monnink, JP, Hoefsloot, LH, Timmers, HJ, Marres, HA, Jansen, JC, Kremer, H, Bayley, JP, Cremers, CW. 2011 SDHAF2 (PGL2–SDH5) and hereditary head and neck paraganglioma Clin Cancer Res 17:247–254.Google Scholar

Schiavi, F, Boedeker, CC, Bausch, B, Peczkowska, M, Gomez, CF, Strassburg, T, Pawlu, C, Buchta, M, Salzmann, M, Hoffmann, MM, Berlis, A, Brink, I, Cybulla, M, Muresan, M, Walter, MA, Forrer, F, Valimaki, M, Kawecki, A, Szutkowski, Z, Schipper, J, Walz, MK, Pigny, P, Bauters, C, Willet-Brozick, JE, Baysal, BE, Januszewicz, A, Eng, C, Opocher, G, Neumann, HP. 2005 Predictors and prevalence of paraganglioma syndrome associated with mutations of the SDHC gene JAMA 294:2057–2063.Google Scholar

Mannelli, M, Ercolino, T, Giache, V, Simi, L, Cirami, C, Parenti, G. 2007 Genetic screening for pheochromocytoma: should SDHC gene analysis be included? J Med Genet 44:586–587.Google Scholar

Lopez-Jimenez, E, de Campos, JM, Kusak, EM, Landa, I, Leskela, S, Montero-Conde, C, Leandro-Garcia, LJ, Vallejo, LA, Madrigal, B, Rodriguez-Antona, C, Robledo, M, Cascon, A. 2008 SDHC mutation in an elderly patient without familial antecedents Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 69:906–910.Google Scholar

Brouwers, FM, Eisenhofer, G, Tao, JJ, Kant, JA, Adams, KT, Linehan, WM, Pacak, K. 2006 High frequency of SDHB germline mutations in patients with malignant catecholamine-producing paragangliomas: implications for genetic testing J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:4505–4509.Google Scholar

Hescot, S, Leboulleux, S, Amar, L, Vezzosi, D, Borget, I, Bournaud-Salinas, C, de la Fouchardiere, C, Libe, R, Do Cao, C, Niccoli, P, Tabarin, A, Raingeard, I, Chougnet, C, Giraud, S, Gimenez-Roqueplo, AP, Young, J, Borson-Chazot, F, Bertherat, J, Wemeau, JL, Bertagna, X, Plouin, PF, Schlumberger, M, Baudin, E. 2013 One-year progression-free survival of therapy-naive patients with malignant pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98:4006–4012.Google Scholar

Rodriguez, JM, Balsalobre, M, Ponce, JL, Rios, A, Torregrosa, NM, Tebar, J, Parrilla, P. 2008 Pheochromocytoma in MEN 2A syndrome. Study of 54 patients World J Surg 32:2520–2526.Google Scholar

Quayle, FJ, Fialkowski, EA, Benveniste, R, Moley, JF. 2007 Pheochromocytoma penetrance varies by RET mutation in MEN 2A Surgery 142:800–5; discussion 5 e1.Google Scholar

Imai, T, Uchino, S, Okamoto, T, Suzuki, S, Kosugi, S, Kikumori, T, Sakurai, A. 2013 High penetrance of pheochromocytoma in multiple endocrine neoplasia 2 caused by germ line RET codon 634 mutation in Japanese patients Eur J Endocrinol 168:683–687.Google Scholar

Lairmore, TC, Ball, DW, Baylin, SB, Wells, SA Jr. 1993 Management of pheochromocytomas in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 syndromes Ann Surg 217:595–601; discussion 603.Google Scholar

Bausch, B, Borozdin, W, Mautner, VF, Hoffmann, MM, Boehm, D, Robledo, M, Cascon, A, Harenberg, T, Schiavi, F, Pawlu, C, Peczkowska, M, Letizia, C, Calvieri, S, Arnaldi, G, Klingenberg-Noftz, RD, Reisch, N, Fassina, A, Brunaud, L, Walter, MA, Mannelli, M, MacGregor, G, Palazzo, FF, Barontini, M, Walz, MK, Kremens, B, Brabant, G, Pfäffle, RW, Koschker, AC, Lohoefner, F, Mohaupt, M, Gimm, O, Jarzab, B, McWhinney, SR, Opocher, G, Januszewicz, A, Kohlhase, J, Eng, C, Neumann, HP. 2007 Germline NF1 mutational spectra and loss-of-heterozygosity analyses in patients with pheochromocytoma and neurofibromatosis type 1 J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:2784–2792.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mulvihill, JJ, Parry, DM, Sherman, JL, Pikus, A, Kaiser-Kupfer, MI, Eldridge, R. 1990 NIH conference. Neurofibromatosis 1 (Recklinghausen disease) and neurofibromatosis 2 (bilateral acoustic neurofibromatosis). An update Ann Intern Med 113:39–52.Google Scholar

Young, WF Jr. 1993 Pheochromocytoma: 1926–1993 Trends Endocrinol Metab 4:122–127.Google Scholar

Bravo, EL, Tarazi, RC, Gifford, RW, Stewart, BH. 1979 Circulating and urinary catecholamines in pheochromocytoma. Diagnostic and pathophysiologic implications N Engl J Med 301:682–686.Google Scholar

Modigliani, E, Vasen, HM, Raue, K, Dralle, H, Frilling, A, Gheri, RG, Brandi, ML, Limbert, E, Niederle, B, Forgas, L, Limbert, E, Niederle, B, Forgas, L, Rosenberg-Bougin, M, Calmettes, C. 1995 Pheochromocytoma in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: European study. The Euromen Study Group J Intern Med 238:363–367.Google Scholar

Lenders, JW, Pacak, K, Walther, MM, Linehan, WM, Mannelli, M, Friberg, P, Keiser, HR, Goldstein, DS, Eisenhofer, G. 2002 Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: which test is best? JAMA 287:1427–1434.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kirkby-Bott, J, Brunaud, L, Mathonet, M, Hamoir, E, Kraimps, JL, Tresallet, C, Amar, L, Rault, A, Henry, JF, Carnaille, B. 2012 Ectopic hormone-secreting pheochromocytoma: a francophone observational study World J Surg 36:1382–1388.Google Scholar

Book contents

Chapter 1 - Clinical presentations of endocrine diseases

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive