Indigenous women of East Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, India are unique in that they have over generations protected and bred the world-famous Aseel poultry and other local varieties. Birds managed under backyard systems contribute crucially to women's livelihood, and are of critical cultural importance in the lives of indigenous communities. A combination of factors has resulted in the fast decline of Aseel poultry populations in their traditional locations in the early 1990s. In the past decade, women have responded through multiple collective actions: to re-establish ecological and diverse cropping, which have provided vital by-products for feed for the poultry; apply modern and indigenous health care and management practices to prevent and control diseases; and innovate with traditional systems of asset building. All of these have helped to restore and sustain the breed, maintain livelihoods, and re-establish biological and cultural diversity.

Family poultry (FP), which make up around 80% of poultry stocks in many developing countries of Africa and Asia, are still important. However, FP farmers are facing many constraints, including high mortality, mainly due to Newcastle disease and currently also to the highly pathogenic avian influenza in many countries since its occurrence in Asia in late 2003. Significant improvements in FP production systems can be achieved through well-designed and implemented information dissemination programmes that endow FP farmers with necessary knowledge and skills. The setting-up of poultry networks that enable FP farmers to acquire and share knowledge, views, experiences as well as research and development results in FP keeping in developing countries is discussed. Ways to improve the efficiency of information dissemination through poultry networks by taking into account the socio-cultural and economic environments of targeted FP farmers are also explored.

The present review work aims at determining the potential usefulness of indigenous naked neck (INN) chicken (D. Nana) for poultry production in a hot-humid climate. INN chicken has good heat dissipation mechanism and well adaptive to harsh tropical environment and nutrition, and is highly resistant to disease and superior to indigenous full-feathered and exotic egg-type or exotic naked neck counterparts in terms of growth rate, egg production, egg quality and meat yield traits. It can produce double the standard number of eggs under improved nutrition and management conditions. Crossbreds of INN with exotic chicken can perform even better than that of exotic chicken in respect of productive and reproductive traits. Consumers prefer the meat and eggs of INN chickens for reasons of pigmentation, leanness, taste, firmness, and they are also used in special dishes. INN chicken prices are typically higher compared with those of products from exotic stocks. There are a very few published papers on the molecular aspects of INN chickens, although this is essential to determine genetic distance or relationship within or between INN chicken and indigenous full-feathered (IFF) varieties (D. nana) for future breeding plans. Therefore INN strains may be a promising and worthy genetic resource for the development of a breed or strain through selective or crossbreeding program suited to Bangladesh and in other countries where similar environments and socio-economic conditions exist. Thus, the present review provides genetic and performance information on INN chickens which may be useful for further improvement of tropical breeds.

It has been about 80 years since Cu was first recognized as being important for maintenance of haemoglobin. Since that time requirement values have been established and signs of deficiency and excess well documented. NRC (1994) provide the most comprehensive list of detailed requirement values for Cu for various classes of poultry, yet these lack extensive detail and are predicated on just five publications, the most recent of which was conducted 30 years ago. Requirement values average 6-8 ppm which traditionally is supplied by inorganic salts and especially copper sulphate. Other inorganic sources vary from 40-115% bioavailability of Cu compared to sulphate. Copper is easily complexed with amino acids or proteins, leading to the development of so-called organic sources of copper which are claimed to have better digestibility and/or less formation of insoluble complexes with other minerals in the digesta. Results on effectiveness of organic vs. inorganic forms of Cu are variable, although this line of research has led to appreciation of the potential to use much lower levels of supplementation. Since at least 80% of dietary copper appears in the excreta, using lower levels of diet supplementation means reduced Cu in the environment. With less supplementation, knowledge about bioavailability of Cu in major feed ingredients becomes important. Copper in cereals is reported to be 80% available to the bird while that in vegetable proteins is closer to 50% available. Availability from animal proteins is very variable, while corn distiller's grains now provides the most concentrated source of Cu within the major ingredients. Copper levels greatly in excess of requirement, at around 125 ppm, have been shown to improve performance of meat birds and egg layers. The mode of action is unknown although likely relates to antibacterial properties of Cu. Likewise high levels of diet Cu have been shown to reduce cholesterol content of eggs and poultry meat, although this is often at the expense of loss in performance and contribution of more Cu to the environment.

Well, it’s the end of another year of ups and downs in the agricultural industry – including poultry production. In the USA several companies have had some tough times, although there has been some good news in other parts of the world.

In terms of the WPSA, we have had a varied year, with a special edition in June devoted to the INFPD (FAO) papers, which was organised by our new president, Bob Pym. We have also seen a rise in the rating of the journal, and an increase in the number of papers being processed. As a result, there has been somewhat of a backlog from time to time – so apologies to any authors who have been caught in this.

As regarding conferences, the major conference in 2009 was probably the ESPN in Scotland, which was well attended, although overshadowed by the sad death of the key organiser, Dr Tom Acamovic, who passed away two weeks prior to the event. Our condolences go to his family. Conferences that were initiated last year went on to be repeated in 2009, and have been reported as successful. Long this may continue.

It appears that the poultry industry is going to continue in a state of transformation for the foreseeable future, due to various financial crises as well as problems with harvest quality in some parts of the world, increased legislation and so on. However, the industry is used to adapting to circumstances well, and, in many cases, is better placed to adapt and survive compared to other sectors.

An area where there are issues is in attracting young scientists into poultry science – as in general the levels of agricultural students is dwindling at universities across the world. A concerted effort to encourage students to come in poultry science and take it into the future is required, in all areas. This is something the WPSA is dedicated to achieving.

All that remains is to wish our membership success in 2010. The WPSA continues to go from strength to strength, and some excellent seminars and conferences are eagerly anticipated in the coming year.

Lucy Tucker

Editor

A study of indigenous Bangladesh chickens under village conditions showed that these birds typically lay 3 clutches of eggs and produce on an average 46 eggs per year, and hens need 105-140 days to complete a production cycle. Mortality of scavenging chicks averaged 57% up to three months of age. A rural household earns only 3310 BDT (1USD=70 BDT) in a year from a flock of 18 chickens with an average of 3.9 layers, although cash income is currently estimated to be only 558 BDT. Changes to traditional management practices can be used to increase in laying performance, e.g. early weaning and creep feeding of chicks increase egg production of hens and reduces chick mortality. Early weaning contributes to an increase in annual egg production by shortening the length of the production cycle from 124 to 66 days. Egg production can hence be increased from an average of 46 to 99 eggs per hen per year. Creep feeding reduced chick mortality from 57% to 12%. Improved management practices not only increase egg production, but also contribute to higher household income, up to 23964 BDT per year. Early weaning, creep feeding of chicks and supplemental feeding of hens during the incubation period, were observed to be effective management tools in achieving a transition from subsistence to economically viable semi-commercial production.

In this paper the dynamics of global egg production between 1990 and 2007 and patterns of trade in 2006 are analysed. This time period was chosen, as the political landscape has changed considerably since the early 1990s. The dynamics of the global poultry industry over the past 17 years has been remarkable. No other branch of animal production has shown comparable growth rates. Global egg production increased from 35.2 million tons to 62.6 million tons or by 78%. The report shows that the growth has not been homogeneous but that regional shifts occurred which have changed the spatial pattern of egg production and of egg trade considerably. Whereas Asia has become the most dynamic growth centre and is dominating global egg production, Europe and North America have lost importance. More than 75% of the absolute growth of global egg production between 1990 and 2007 were contributed by China and India. The paper also presents a detailed analysis of global and regional trade patterns. In addition to a global overview, regions with the highest egg surplus and egg deficit are identified and characterised. In 2006, Western Europe was the region with the highest egg deficit. It was the most attractive market for shell eggs, with Germany in a leading position. The second major market for shell eggs was Western Asia. In this region, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Kuwait and Oman were the main egg importing countries. Other important egg deficit regions were Northern Europe, in particular the United Kingdom, Middle Africa with Angola as the leading importer, and Central Asia with Tajikistan and Kazakhstan. The highest egg surplus showed Southern Europe with Spain as the leading egg exporting country. Southern Asia ranked second with India and Iran as major exporters. Another egg surplus region was Eastern Europe with Poland and Belarus as leading egg exporting countries. In North America, the USA had the highest surplus, in South-East Asia Malaysia and Thailand. It can be expected that the recent spatial pattern of egg trade will not change very much in the near future. Egg trade will be dominated by European countries, most of the trade will, however, be intra-EU trade. The banning of cages in the EU could even make higher imports from adjacent non-EU countries necessary. A second cluster of egg trade will be located in Asia with Southern and South-Eastern Asia as surplus and Western as well as Central Asia as deficit regions. The third cluster will be the NAFTA member countries with the USA as exporting and Canada and Mexico as importing countries.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, the French Branch, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.

This paper estimates the economic costs of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) to the poultry industry at the farm and sub-sector levels, and examines the benefits of controlling and preventing the spread of HPAI in Ghana. The scare in 2006 and outbreaks in 2007 have affected consumption of poultry products such as chicken meat and eggs, which sharply dropped by 51% and 64%, respectively. Economic losses due to the HPAI threat, and outbreaks to rural and commercial poultry producers, including those of egg and live bird sellers, have been estimated at US$26.3 million. These losses are due to the destruction of infected eggs and day-old chicks and a drop in market prices (of up to 25%) of day-old chicks and eggs.

A total of 40,727 birds from 35 farms died due to HPAI, of which 33% died naturally of the disease and 66% were culled. The Ghanan government spent US$160,000 in compensation paid to producers of culled birds; expenditures for containment of the disease at source and control measures to minimize risk of HPAI such as depopulation, decontamination. A ban on movement of poultry products between 2006 and 2007 amounted to US$ 4.3 million. These control measures eventually prevented the country losing 99.88% of its poultry stock, avoided economic losses valued at US$ 416 million.

Indigenous and local breeds still contribute meaningfully to poultry meat and egg production and consumption in developing countries, where they make up to 90% of the total poultry population. This is so because they are well-adapted to the extensive husbandry (scavenging) conditions, with very low levels of inputs, under which they are maintained, usually together with other domestic animals. However, the vast majority of these breeds are not or poorly described. In addition, according to The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, about 40% of avian breeds are of unknown risk status. Thus, considerable efforts are needed in order to evaluate these breeds.

Genetic improvement of these indigenous breeds is a challenging, but not impossible, task. Such improvement should not lead to a loss of their desirable characteristics. Different breeding strategies are discussed in light of the lessons learnt from previous experiences.

Campylobacter are the primary cause of food poisoning in the UK and many other countries so, because chicken are recognised as one of the main routes by which this organism gets into the human food chain, there is considerable interest in identifying potential sources of Campylobacter on the farm. One potential source of infection is water, which may also be a means by which the organism is transmitted through the flock following initial infection. Studies into the role of water in Campylobacter infection of chickens have identified the importance of factors such as biofilm in protecting the organisms and, potentially, the viable but non-culturable form (VNC) of Campylobacter. While difficulties in identifying the VNC form in field outbreaks may have led to an underestimate of the importance of water as a risk factor there are contradictory views regarding the ability of the VNC form to cause infection under field conditions. Producers may treat drinking water with a range of products to reduce the number of microbial contaminants, Campylobacter included, that reach the growing bird in the drinking water. Examples of products used by producers include chlorine, chlorine dioxide, organic acids, peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The efficacy of these products differs depending on the environment in which they are used, pH for example having a significant effect on the efficacy of chlorine. If the full benefits of drinking water treatment are to be realised then further evidence is required, in terms of the effects on the normal production parameters such as weight gain, feed conversion efficiency, flock uniformity as well as on the prevalence of infection such as that caused by Campylobacter.

Poultry genetic resources encompass all types of populations, from village chickens to commercial and experimental lines. Characterisation includes collection of data on population size and structure, geographical distribution, production systems in which the breed is found, phenotypic attributes (physical features, performance levels and any unique features), historical development of the breed (crossbreeding, selection). Such data can be available for standardised breeds and experimental lines, but are generally confidential for commercial lines and difficult to record for village chickens. In the past, random sample tests provided recurrent data for layer and broiler strains, but these have been discontinued. Available literature on local populations provides information on specific features such as morphological diversity, scavenging behaviour, product quality and disease resistance.

Molecular markers provide useful information on genetic variability, either within or between populations, and make it possible to quantify relatedness between populations and to detect introgressions. Molecular markers contribute to define breed identity and may be used to assign individuals to their population of origin. Current results provide a reasonably complete picture of genomic variability and population structure in the domestic chicken. Yet, this does not make it possible to predict performance: phenotypic data are still needed to document molecular data. In the future, the progress of genomics may merge functional data with historical data.

Monitoring poultry genetic resources is not always a priority for certain countries. Indicators may be proposed for between- as well as within- population variability.

The Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources was adopted by 109 countries in Interlaken, in September 2007. It aims to promote a pragmatic, systematic and efficient overall approach, which harmoniously addresses the development of institutions, human resources, cooperative frameworks, and resource mobilization for the sustainable use and conservation of animal genetic resources. The Global Plan of Action contains five Strategic Priorities for Action on conservation. Countries have thereby committed themselves to develop national conservation policies, to establish or strengthen in situ and ex situ conservation programmes, to develop and implement regional and global long-term conservation strategies and to develop approaches and technical standards for conservation.

Within avian breeds globally, 30% are at risk and 9% are extinct. The proportion of breeds at risk and extinct is highest in chickens. Fast structural change has been identified as one threat to genetic resources. Following the advent of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1, conservation of poultry genetic resources has been discussed. Although in situ conservation of poultry breeds is the preferred method, cryoconservation technology has advanced. Poultry genetic resources are under-conserved, and strategic approaches to conservation need to be developed and implemented.