Determining the nature of root and shoot competition can elucidate the competitive ability of an invasive species and direct management strategies. In a set of competition experiments, artichoke thistle (Cynara cardunculus), an exotic invasive perennial forb, was subjected to full or shoot competition with four species: black mustard (Brassica nigra), an exotic annual forb; ripgut grass (Bromus diandrus), an exotic annual grass; purple needle-grass (Nassella pulchra), a native perennial grass; and itself. For shoot competition, a smaller pot nested in a larger experimental pot sequestered the target plant root system. A bare ground invasion experiment, in which all plants were transplanted on the same date, and a community invasion experiment, in which competitor species were planted 1 mo before targets, were conducted. In the bare ground invasion experiment, target plant size was reduced (P ≤ 0.05) when exposed to full competition with the exotic species, but not purple needle-grass. Effects on target plants included reductions in height, number of leaves, rosette diameter, and shoot and leaf dry weight. In the community invasion experiment, full competition with all species reduced target plant growth (P ≤ 0.05). Shoot competition was more important when all species were planted synchronously, whereas root competition was more important when target plant establishment was delayed. In a separate experiment, artichoke thistle was grown under four light levels simulating field conditions under canopies of the same competitors. Midday carbon assimilation decreased linearly with increased shade, indicating the likely effects of shoot competition on artichoke thistle. Results indicated that exotic species are more competitive than native purple needle-grass against artichoke thistle and that restoration directly to native grassland after artichoke thistle removal might be difficult. However, artichoke thistle seedling growth is reduced by root competition from grasses that emerge earlier, indicating that early season management of grasslands to delay artichoke thistle establishment might provide effective control.

Previous research has examined the extent to which red rice affects both yield and grain quality of cultivated rice. However, this research was conducted over 15 yr ago. Modern long-grain rice cultivars have the potential to produce yields above 10,000 kg ha−1; however, it is unknown whether modern rice cultivars sacrifice competitiveness to achieve higher yields, or if, in fact, they are more competitive. Field studies were conducted in 2002 and 2003 at the Southeast Research and Extension Center near Rohwer, AR, and at the University of Arkansas Pine Bluff Research Farm near Lonoke, AR, to investigate the effect of red rice density on interference between red rice and five rice cultivars (‘CL161’, ‘Cocodrie’, ‘LaGrue’, ‘Lemont’, and ‘XL8’). White rice yield reductions were between 100 and 755 kg ha−1 for every red rice plant m−2. The hybrid rice, XL8, had higher yields than the conventional cultivars. Red rice contamination in milling samples increased linearly as a function of red rice density at Lonoke and Rohwer in 2003. Dockage for each cultivar was calculated on the basis of the relationship between red rice density and red rice contamination. Semidwarf Lemont was the most contaminated and hybrid XL8 the least contaminated by the various densities of red rice.

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of crop rotation (spring barley monoculture vs. spring barley–red clover 2-yr rotation), tillage (moldboard plow, chisel plow, no-till), and weed management (intensive, moderate, minimum) on plant–seedbank relationships for 19 weed species. Plant and seedbank density data were collected over 4 yr and analyzed by analysis of variance and correlation analysis to confirm treatment effects on plant–seedbank relationships. The relative frequency (difference between aboveground and seedbank frequency) of many species was more influenced by rotation, whereas species density appeared regulated more by weed management than by other factors. Frequency data confirmed that very few species were ubiquitous over time or treatment, aboveground or in the seedbank. The perennial species, field horsetail, quackgrass, white clover, and perennial sowthistle were more frequent aboveground than in the seedbank. This was also observed for annuals such as common hempnettle, sun spurge, catchweed bedstraw, and annual grasses. Treatment effects on abundance were inconsistent aboveground and in the seedbank across time for 12 of 19 species. The seven species that showed more consistent treatment response for abundance were frequent species present in 50% of the plots both aboveground and in the seedbank. For most species, plant density was correlated with either the previous or current year seedbank, but correlations were rarely of the same magnitude and significance over the years. Common chickweed was the only species for which treatment effects on the plant–seedbank relationship were confirmed for all 4 yr. Correlations between midseason plant populations and subsequent seedbanks confirmed the role of residual populations in replenishing the seedbanks, including those of perennials like quackgrass and dandelion. Overall, plant–seedbank relationships were tenuous for many weed species and varied over time with cropping practices and environment.

Since the dawn of civilization, humans have practiced site-specific weed management. In its earliest form, weeds were visually identified as such and removed by hand (should this be referenced as “sight” specific weed management?). Hoeing or hand weeding is even today one of the most important weed management tools worldwide. Even with the development of herbicides, a number of methods have been used for site-specific management. Producers and land managers mentally mark the location of a weed patch and later apply a pre- or postemergence herbicide at that location. The rope-wick applicator is based on the principle of applying a herbicide only where a weed is standing above the crop. I can remember as a teenager spending days on a tractor driving up and down peanut (Arachis hypogea L.) rows and turning a sprayer loaded with 2,4-DB off and on based on where horsenettle (Solanum carolinense L.) patches were located. It was common for a number of years in the Mississippi Delta to see a tractor with a bar on the front that had four to eight seats welded to it, with riders watching for johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) fields and applying a nonselective herbicide such as glyphosate, or later selective ACCase-inhibiting herbicides.

Contrasting cover-cropping systems were compared to determine whether fundamental differences in cover-cropping strategies affect weed seed predators and resulting seed predation. We conducted typical “feeding” trials in which 25 seeds of each of six weed species, including velvetleaf, wild mustard, yellow foxtail, common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed, and hairy galinsoga, were placed in the field. Exclosures showed that the majority of seed predation could be attributed to invertebrates: 43% out of a total of 56% seed predation for 11 d in 2002 and 40% out of a total of 58% seed predation for 4 d in 2003. The predominant invertebrate seed predator across all entry points of four cropping systems was a ground-dwelling carabid beetle, Harpalus rufipes, which was more abundant in vegetated treatments, particularly red clover, compared with treatments recently tilled and planted to a fall cover crop. In the absence of vertebrates, H. rufipes activity–density was positively correlated with mean seed predation in 2002 (Spearman ρ = 0.489; P < 0.001) but not in 2003 (Spearman ρ = 0.090; P = 0.504), possibly because of a delay between pitfall trapping and predation assay. The activity–density of invertebrate seed predators measured in these systems and the high level of predation imposed on weed seeds at the soil surface indicate that cover-cropping strategies should consider late-season weed management, which maintains seeds on the soil surface and provides desirable habitat for invertebrate predators.

Although the effectiveness of vegetative filter strips (VFS) for reducing herbicide runoff is well documented, a comprehensive review of the literature does not exist. The objectives of this article are to denote the methods developed for evaluating herbicide retention in VFS; ascertain the efficacy of VFS regarding abating herbicide runoff; identify parameters that affect herbicide retention in VFS; review the environmental fate of herbicides retained by VFS; and identify future research needs. The retention of herbicide runoff by VFS has been evaluated in natural rainfall, simulated rainfall, and simulated run-on experiments. Parameters affecting herbicide retention in VFS include width of VFS, area ratio, species established in the VFS, time after establishment of the VFS, antecedent moisture content, nominal herbicide inflow concentration, and herbicide properties. Generally, subsequent transport of herbicides retained by VFS is reduced relative to adjacent cultivated soil because of enhanced sorption and degradation in the former.

Effects of environmental factors, especially light, on eastern black nightshade seed germination were studied under growth chamber conditions. Germination occurred only when temperatures were 20 C or higher for 12 to 24 h d−1. Optimum germination occurred within the constant temperature range of 28 to 33 C or with alternating temperatures of 30/25 and 35/30 C. In the dark, eastern black nightshade germination was poor except at high alternating temperatures of 30/25 and 35/30 C. Seed germination was enhanced by light when temperatures were suboptimal. Imbibition was a prerequisite for response of eastern black nightshade seed to light. The light requirement for eastern black nightshade germination was partially overcome by cold stratification, gibberellic acid (GA3), and high or alternating temperatures. Germination of eastern black nightshade seed was promoted by short exposure to sunlight but was inhibited by prolonged exposure, especially when irradiance was high.

One of the primary benefits of site-specific agricultural technologies is the potential to reduce the use of polluting inputs, thereby minimizing ecological damage. Weeds are often found in patches, so site-specific (field scale) management offers a straightforward opportunity to minimize ecological effects related to wasteful broadcast use of herbicides. Beyond possible efficiencies related to accurate targeting, site-specific technologies, through a process of parameterizing management decision models for each field, may improve ecological understanding of weed populations and thus encourage ecologically based management. This hypothesis was assessed with a simple model that combined economic injury–level prediction with a single parameter (growing season precipitation) to represent environmental variability. Model simulations of crop yield in response to weed density at a virtual farm and six surrounding regional experiment stations suggested that localized (on-farm field) parameter estimation may help to circumvent the variability associated with damage function extrapolation from small-plot experiments at experiment stations and thereby improve predictive accuracy for site-specific weed management (SSWM) strategies. Thus, remote sensing and SSWM technologies may allow producers to reduce the risk associated with the reduced use of purchased inputs and greater reliance on natural weed population–regulating mechanisms. Effective ecologically based weed management may be dependent on local parameterization of models.

Greenhouse studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of wild radish–amended soil on tomato, bell pepper, and yellow nutsedge growth. In addition, yellow nutsedge interference with tomato and bell pepper was evaluated with and without the wild radish amendment. Leaf margins of tomato and bell pepper plants were necrotic for approximately 2 wk after transplanting into soil amended with 1% (wt/wt) wild radish biomass. Injury to both crops was transient, but bell pepper biomass through 9 wk after transplanting was negatively affected, whereas tomato was not. In a replacement series study, tomato was more competitive than yellow nutsedge in nonamended soil and the competitiveness of tomato further increased at the expense of reduced yellow nutsedge growth in wild radish–amended soil. Bell pepper was less competitive than yellow nutsedge in nonamended soil, but in wild radish–amended soil, bell pepper held a competitive advantage over yellow nutsedge. In addition, yellow nutsedge tuber production was reduced as much as 88% when soil was amended with wild radish, and tuber weight in nonamended soil was 0.32 g tuber−1 compared with 0.05 g tuber−1 in wild radish–amended soil. This research shows that competitiveness of tomato and bell pepper is increased over yellow nutsedge when soil is amended with wild radish, in addition to reducing yellow nutsedge tuber production and size.

A stochastic simulation modeling framework was developed for measuring the impact of weed management technologies in terms of their risk and efficacy. The framework explicitly accounted for the variability of environmental conditions, which underpins risk, and its effect upon the weed population dynamics and crop yields. It was applied to wild oat and wild radish in spring wheat as case studies. Technologies considered included a postemergence herbicide, preseeding tillage, increased crop density, and a selective spray-topping (seed-head sterilizing) herbicide. All stages of the weed life cycle were specified as random variables on the basis of triangular probability distributions, which either were derived from daily environmental conditions or specified as a subjective probability distribution. By using probability density functions the study identified the risks to changes in the weed seed bank and weed density associated with various integrated weed management strategies. This approach not only quantified the probabilities associated with the different outcomes, but also identified how the probability distributions of outcomes were changed as a result of different technology combinations used in weed management strategies. For instance, strategies involving a selective spray-topping herbicide to control seed rain not only resulted in lower seed banks, but the range in possible values was considerably reduced, implying lower likelihood of a population increase. The use of such a risk framework not only benefits weed scientists in terms of designing more effective weed management technologies, but can also assist farmer adoption by being able to quantify the probabilities of success and failure of a technology.

Polyethylene mulch is an effective component of weed management in vegetable production. However, nutsedges are persistent and proliferate in these systems. Greenhouse studies evaluated the growth and tuber production of purple nutsedge and yellow nutsedge grown in pots covered with black-opaque polyethylene mulch, clear-colorless polyethylene mulch, or nonmulched. Single, presprouted nutsedge tubers were planted and growth evaluated over 16 wk. Relative to the nonmulched, yellow nutsedge shoot production was reduced 46 and 72% by black and clear mulch, respectively. The number of yellow nutsedge shoots that pierced and emerged through black and clear mulches was reduced 96% relative to emerged shoots in the nonmulched control. Yellow nutsedge in the nonmulched produced 366 tubers per initial tuber, whereas tuber production was reduced 49 to 51% in black and clear mulch. Growth of purple nutsedge shoots and tubers in black polyethylene mulch was similar to the nonmulched. Clear polyethylene reduced purple nutsedge tuber biomass relative to nonmulched, but clear mulch was similar to black mulch in nearly all measured variables. Without mulch, yellow nutsedge produced more shoots, shoot biomass, tubers, tuber biomass, and root biomass than purple nutsedge. However, growth of yellow nutsedge was hindered by polyethylene mulch, whereas differences in purple nutsedge growth among mulches could not be detected. The relative insensitivity of purple nutsedge and sensitivity of yellow nutsedge growth to the physical mulch barrier could lead to a shift in nutsedge species composition in mulched vegetable production.

Growers need affordable methods to sample weed populations to reduce herbicide use with site-specific weed management. Sampling programs and methods of developing sampling programs for integrated pest management are not sufficient for site-specific weed management because more and different information is needed to make treatment maps than simply estimate average pest density. Sampling plans for site-specific weed management must provide information to map the weeds in the field but should be developed for the objective of prescribing spatially variable management. Weed scientists will be most successful at designing plans for site-specific weed management if they focus on this objective throughout the process of designing a sampling plan. They must also learn more about the spatial distribution and dynamics of weed populations and use that knowledge to identify cost-effective plans, recommend methods to make maps as well as collect data, and find ways to evaluate maps that reflect management to be prescribed from the map. Foremost, sampling must be thought of as an ongoing process over time that uses many types of information rather than a single event of collecting one type of information. Specifically, scientists will need to identify common characteristics rather than just differences of the spatial distribution of weeds among fields and species, recognize that map accuracy may be a poor indicator of the value of a sampling plan, and develop methods to use growers' knowledge of the distribution of weeds and past spatially variable management within a field for both making a map and recommending a sampling plan. The value of proposed methods for sampling and mapping must also be demonstrated or adoption of site-specific weed management might be limited to growers who enjoy using sophisticated technology.

Increasing concerns about pesticide use and a steadily increasing conversion to organic farming have been major factors driving research in physical and cultural weed control methods in Europe. This article reviews some of the major results achieved with nonchemical methods and strategies, especially adapted for row crops (e.g., corn, sugar beet, onion, leek, and carrot) and small-grain cereals (e.g., barley and wheat). In row crops, intrarow weeds constitute a major challenge, and research has mainly aimed at replacing laborious hand-weeding with mechanization. A number of investigations have focused on optimizing the use of thermal and mechanical weeding methods against intrarow weeds, such as flaming, harrowing, brush weeding, hoeing, torsion weeding, and finger weeding. And new methods are now under investigation such as robotic weeding for row crops with abundant spacing between individual plants and band-steaming for row crops developing dense crop stands. The strategic use of mechanical weed control methods in small-grain cereals has been another area of considerable interest. Weed harrowing and interrow hoeing provide promising results when they are part of a strategy that also involves cultural methods such as fertilizer placement, seed vigor, seed rate, and competitive varieties. Although research in preventive, cultural, and physical methods have improved weed control in row crops and small-grain cereals, effective long-term weed management in low external input and organic systems can only be achieved by tackling the problem in a wider context, i.e., at the cropping system level. Basic principles of this approach, examples of cover crop and intercropping use for weed suppression, and an application in a 2-yr rotation are presented and discussed.

Greenhouse and laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate mechanisms of glyphosate resistance in horseweed populations from Mississippi, Arkansas, Delaware, and Tennessee. A nondestructive leaf-dip bioassay was developed to confirm resistance and susceptibility in individual test plants. A single leaf was excised from each plant, and the petiole and bottom one-fourth of leaf was dipped in a 600 mg ae L−1 glyphosate solution for 2 d followed by visually estimating the injury on a scale of 0 to 10. Plants were classified as resistant (R) if the score was 2 to 3 and susceptible (S) if the score was 5 to 6. 14C-glyphosate solution was applied on the adaxial surface of a fully expanded leaf of the second whorl of four-whorl rosette plants. Plants were harvested 48 h after treatment and radioactivity was determined in treated leaf, other leaves, crown, and roots. Absorption of 14C-glyphosate was similar (47 to 54%) between R and S plants from within and among the four states, suggesting absorption is not involved in glyphosate resistance. The amount of radioactivity translocated from the treated leaf was reduced in R plants compared with S plants. The reduction in translocation of 14C-glyphosate ranged from 28% in Mississippi-R biotype to 48% in Delaware-R biotype compared with their respective S biotypes. Epicuticular wax mass ranged from 6 to 80 μg cm−2 among horseweed biotypes, with no differences between R and S biotypes within each state. Treating two leaves with glyphosate solution at the field use rate (0.84 kg ae ha−1) killed S plants but not R plants (38 to 58% control) regardless of state origin. These results suggest that a simple bioassay can be used to screen biotypes for suspected resistance and that reduced translocation of glyphosate plays a major role in glyphosate resistance in R biotypes of horseweed.

A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the herbicidal activity of five aliphatic (ethyl, propyl, butyl, allyl, and 3-methylthiopropyl) and three aromatic (phenyl, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl) isothiocyanates on Texas panicum, large crabgrass, and sicklepod. All isothiocyanates were applied to soil at 0, 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 nmol g−1 of soil and incorporated. Weed emergence was generally stimulated at the lower isothiocyanate concentrations, but all isothiocyanates provided 37% or more suppression of each species at the highest concentration. Propyl and allyl isothiocyanate were most effective in suppressing Texas panicum, with 50% effective dose (ED50) values of 345 and 409 nmol g−1 of soil. All aliphatic isothiocyanates reduced Texas panicum density by at least 98%. Allyl and 3-methylthiopropyl isothiocyanate were the most effective aliphatics on large crabgrass, with density reductions of 98 and 100%, respectively. All aromatic isothiocyanates reduced large crabgrass density by 86 to 96%. Sicklepod was generally the most tolerant of the three species evaluated, with ED50 values for ethyl, propyl, and butyl isothiocyanate being greater than the evaluated concentrations. Maximum reduction in sicklepod density was 72, 68, 65, and 62%, which was achieved with allyl, benzyl, 3-methylthiopropyl, and phenyl isothiocyanate, respectively. This research shows that soil-applied and incorporated isothiocyanates are effective in suppressing some important weeds of the southeastern United States, but effectiveness of each isothiocyanate varies among species. Application techniques that minimize loss of volatile isothiocyanates may further improve their potential as an effective means of controlling these and other troublesome weeds.

Laboratory and greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the effect of light, temperature, moisture stress, solution pH, and burial depth on coffee senna germination and emergence. Seeds germinated equally with or without light, and pretreatment with red or far-red light did not affect germination. Optimum temperature for germination was 25 C, and a high germination percentage (> 70%) occurred from 12.5 to 30 C. The low temperature threshold for germination was between 10 and 12.5 C, whereas the upper threshold was near 45 C. Coffee senna germination in response to moisture stress and solution pH differed at 15 and 30 C. At −0.4 MPa, no germination occurred at 15 C, whereas 15% germination occurred at 30 C. Optimum germination was at pH 6, but further increases in pH had a more negative effect on germination at 15 C than at 30 C. Coffee senna germination ranged from 9 to 12% at pH 3, but was 0% at pH 10, which indicates that coffee senna germination was more tolerant of acidic than basic solutions. Depth-mediated emergence inhibition was sigmoidal, with greatest emergence on the soil surface. Emergence from 2- to 10-cm depths reached 95% of the total emergence 1 to 3 d earlier in a sandy loam than in a sand soil. Mean emergence depth was 1.7 cm in the sand and 2.4 cm in the sandy loam soil. Knowledge gained from this research will be instrumental in developing a better understanding of the requirements for coffee senna germination and emergence, allowing further development and improvement of integrated weed management strategies specific to this troublesome weed.

Purple and yellow nutsedge are the most troublesome weeds of vegetable crops in the southeast United States. Elimination of methyl bromide use will require alternative management programs to suppress nutsedge growth and interference in vegetables. Polyethylene mulch is an effective barrier for most weeds; however, nutsedges can proliferate in beds covered with polyethylene mulch. The influence of polyethylene mulch on shoot production and lateral expansion patterns of single tubers of purple nutsedge and yellow nutsedge over time was evaluated in field studies. Purple nutsedge patch size was similar in the black mulch treatment and nonmulched control after 8 and 16 wk after planting (WAP). By the end of the growing season, purple nutsedge patch size in the black mulch treatment was nearly twice that in the nonmulched control. At 32 WAP, there were 1,550 shoots in the 16.1 m2 patch in the black mulch treatment and 790 shoots in the 8.1 m2 patch in the nonmulched control. In contrast, yellow nutsedge growth was suppressed in the black mulch treatment, relative to the nonmulched control. Compared with the black mulch treatment at 16 and 24 WAP, the nonmulched control produced nearly three times as many yellow nutsedge shoots (140 shoots at 16 WAP and 210 shoots at 24 WAP) and patches that were twice the size (0.10 m2 at 16 WAP and 0.18 m2 at 24 WAP). These data indicate that there are significant differences in the growth habits of the two nutsedges species in mulched vegetable systems. The differences in response to black mulch will likely lead to purple nutsedge becoming a greater problem, relative to yellow nutsedge, in vegetable systems. The rapid expansion of a single purple nutsedge shoot to form a patch that is 22.1 m2 and containing 3,440 shoots at 60 WAP illustrates the importance of managing this species.

Mexican palo-verde is a serious woody weed in tropical parts of the world. Like many such leguminous species, it has relatively large seeds with hard-seeded (physical) dormancy. It therefore has the potential for long-lived seed banks that are difficult to manage. The physiology of hard-seeded dormancy is still relatively poorly understood but has important implications for weed management. We propose that wet heat is a potentially important dormancy release mechanism for summer rainfall tropical regions. We described the relationships between wet heat and dormancy release (in water; three seed sources) and germination (near saturation; single seed source) by testing seeds at constant temperatures between 10 and 60 C. The logistic transformation of the temperature–dormancy relationship was best described by a quadratic equation below a threshold of ∼ 33.6 C and a linear equation above that threshold. The relationship was the same for all seed sources other than a phase shift of up to 6.6 C, which is likely to be of biological significance. Germination occurred between 15 and 40 C and was limited by cold stress at ≤ 20 C and heat stress > 35 C. The sensitivity of dormancy to naturally encountered temperature ranges suggests that wet heat is an important dormancy release mechanism and one that can be exploited when developing management strategies for invasive populations.

As a weed, wheat has recently gained greater profile. Determining wheat persistence in cropping systems will facilitate the development of effective volunteer wheat management strategies. In October of 2000, glyphosate-resistant (GR) spring wheat seeds were scattered on plots at eight western Canada sites. From 2001 to 2003, the plots were seeded to a canola–barley–field-pea rotation or a fallow–barley–fallow rotation, with five seeding systems involving seeding dates and soil disturbance levels, and monitored for wheat plant density. Herbicides and tillage (in fallow systems) were used to ensure that no wheat plants produced seed. Seeding systems with greater levels of soil disturbance usually had greater wheat densities. Volunteer wheat densities at 2 (2002) and 3 (2003) yr after seed dispersal were close to zero but still detectable at most locations. At the end of 2003, viable wheat seeds were not detected in the soil seed bank at any location. The majority of wheat seedlings were recruited in the year following seed dispersal (2001) at the in-crop, prespray (PRES) interval. At the PRES interval in 2001, across all locations and treatments, wheat density averaged 2.6 plants m−2. At the preplanting interval (PREP), overall wheat density averaged only 0.2 plants m−2. By restricting density data to include only continuous cropping, low-disturbance direct-seeding (LDS) systems, the latter mean dropped below 0.1 plants m−2. Only at one site were preplanting GR wheat densities sufficient (4.2 plants m−2) to justify a preseeding herbicide treatment in addition to glyphosate in LDS systems. Overall volunteer wheat recruitment at all spring and summer intervals in the continuous cropping rotation in 2001 was 1.7% (3.3 plants m−2). Despite the fact that volunteer wheat has become more common in the central and northern Great Plains, there is little evidence from this study to suggest that its persistence will be a major agronomic problem.