Sex offences are overrepresented in the mentally handicapped, but information about the characteristics and offence behaviour of this group is limited.

A retrospective case note survey was made of 47 male patients referred for antisocial sexual behaviour.

Of 191 offences and/or incidents committed, 55.5% were heterosexual, 24% indecent exposure, 12.4% homosexual, 13.6% serious and 3.6% involved physical assault. Average age of the offenders was 23.9 years, with a mean IQ of 59.5, and there was a high prevalence of family psychopathology, psychiatric illness, minor physical disabilities, sexual experience, impaired relationship skills and sexual recidivism. Recidivists showed a low specificity for offence type and age and sex of victim. Categorical analysis differentiated a ‘sex offences only’ group from a ‘sex plus other offences’ group in the key areas of psychopathology, offence behaviour and outcome; this was supported by factor analysis.

The finding of two subgroups of mentally handicapped male sex offenders has important implications for prevention, assessment and treatment.

An investigation to determine which prognostic variables are associated with behavioural treatment failure in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Empirically established prognostic variables measured at the start of treatment may lead to adjusted treatment programmes for these patients.

Forty patients, diagnosed with OCD, received a standardised treatment consisting of 18 sessions in vivo exposure and response prevention. Compulsive behaviour (MOCI) and obsessive fear (ADS) were the outcome measures. Prognostic variables included were initial severity of OC complaints, initial level of depression, problem duration, patients' motivation for treatment, quality of the therapeutic relationship, and marital dissatisfaction.

Greater initial severity of complaints (P < 0.01), and depression (P = O.03) predicted poorer outcome for compulsive behaviour. Greater initial severity of complaints (P < 0.01), and the conjoint variables higher level of depression, longer problem duration, poorer motivation for treatment, and dissatisfaction with the therapeutic relationship predicted poorer outcome for obsessive fear (P < 0.01).

The complaint-related variables of initial severity, initial depression, and problem duration, and the non-specific treatment variables of patients' motivation and quality of the therapeutic relationship, affect behavioural treatment outcome in OCD.

Many studies of community care show little overall improvement in patient functioning. This study investigated whether cognitive impairment mediates the effect of the increased opportunities offered by the community.

Behaviour, symptoms, sociodemographic variables and information processing of a random sample of chronic psychiatric patients were examined. Six years later, social and behavioural outcomes were measured.

The overall change in the group was negligible. Individual variation can be accounted for by two factors: time since transfer to the community, and initial information processing problems. Patients transferred for at least three years showed significant improvements. Schizophrenic patients without information processing problems improved, but those with deficits got worse.

The identification of mediating factors should allow better rehabilitation plans, and alleviate the toxic effects that transfer has on some patients' functioning.

This study evaluated whether a community psychiatric nurse (CPN) team providing a comprehensive aftercare service, using a case management approach, improves psychopathology and social functioning of the long-term mentally ill, and reduces hospital use compared with a generic CPN team.

Patients suffering from severe and persistent mental health problems were randomised to intensive aftercare or generic care after referral to the CPN manager. Each group contained 41 patients who were assessed at baseline and at 6, 12 and 18 months by an independent research psychologist. Outcome measures included the GAS, PSE, SAS, patient and relatives' satisfaction, number of admissions, and length of stay.

No difference between the groups was found on any of the outcome measures, despite the much higher number of contacts of the intensive (n = 52) versus generic CPNs (n = 13) and the much greater range of interventions.

Intensive aftercare for people with persistent mental health problems was not found to be of greater benefit than generic CPN care. Many factors need to be considered for aftercare to be effective, including community resources, process of care, and staff training.

From both a clinical and an aetiological perspective, major depression (MD) is probably a heterogeneous condition. We attempt to relate these two domains.

We examined which of an extensive series of clinical characteristics in 646 female twins from a population-based register with a lifetime diagnosis of MD predicts the risk for MD in co-twins. MD was defined by DSM–III–R criteria.

Four variables uniquely predicted an increased risk for MD in the co-twin: number of episodes, degree of impairment and co-morbidity with panic disorder or bulimia. One variable uniquely predicted decreased risk: co-morbidity with phobia. Variables that did not uniquely predict risk of MD in the co-twin included age at onset, number and kind of depressive symptoms, treatment seeking, duration of the longest episode and co-morbidity with generalised anxiety disorder and alcohol dependence.

Our results suggest that the clinical features of MD can be meaningfully related to the familial vulnerability to illness, particularly with respect to recurrence, impairment and patterns of co-morbidity.

A population of adult schizophrenic patients was assessed to discover how the patients viewed their childhood, whether their view differed from non-schizophrenic adults, and to determine any association between parental rearing practices as perceived by the patient, childhood personality as perceived by the mother, and current symptoms. Type and level of expressed emotion shown by parents towards patients was also examined.

Parental attitudes, as perceived by 50 schizophrenic patients, were assessed by the EMBU scale. Patients' premorbid personality and social adjustment were assessed through interviews with patients' mothers by the Scale for the Assessment of Premorbid Schizoid and Schizotypal Traits and the Premorbid Social Adjustment Scale. Current symptoms were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale and Subjective Deficit Syndrome Scale.

Patients saw little difference between fathers' and mothers' attitudes. There was a positive correlation between parental rejection and overprotection, and a negative correlation between rejection and warmth. There were no significant correlations between parental rearing attitudes and patients' childhood personality; there was a significant correlation between parental attitudes and current symptoms. Rejection and overprotection were associated with more severe, warmth with less severe symptoms, especially so for positive schizophrenic symptoms and general psychopathology. Although there was no association between the general level of expressed emotion shown by the parent towards the adult patient, and patients' perceived parental rearing attitudes, parents with high expressed emotion on the basis of hostility had higher rejection scores on the parental rearing attitudes scale.

Schizophrenic patients saw their parents as showing much less warmth, and the severity of current symptoms was associated with perceived parental rearing attitudes. The hostility component of high expressed emotion may be a parental trait which exists before the illness begins.

The relationship between antipsychotic drug treatment and sudden unexplained death remains unclear. The estimation of post-mortem blood drug concentrations should be helpful.

Eight medico-legal cases were reviewed with respect to behaviour of patient, type and dosage of drug treatment, mode of death, post-mortem findings and drug concentrations.

The problems of evaluating such drug levels are discussed. Five of the eight patients had probably toxic concentrations of antipsychotic and/or antidepressants, which caused death, usually involving cardiac arrhythmias.

In cases of sudden unexpected death, a sample of blood from a peripheral vein should be obtained immediately death is pronounced or the body discovered, and sent for analysis. To minimise such fatalities, the patient should be monitored carefully, with ECG if feasible, and electrolyte balance checked. The drug regimen used should be kept simple and large doses of antipsychotics and/or antidepressants avoided wherever possible.

Part of the community psychiatric nurse (CPN) service was reorganised into a community support team (CST), with staff acting as case managers. An economic evaluation ran parallel to the comparison with generic CPN care.

Eighty-two clients were randomly allocated to experimental and control groups. Costs were comprehensively measured over a pre-referral period (three months), and then at 6, 12, and 18 months.

The economic evaluation found a cost difference between the groups. Generic group costs averaged £89 per patient per week more than CST group costs. The difference was only significant for the first six months. Changes in the burden of cost across agencies were observed.

Although CPN inputs and costs were higher for the CST group, there was a significant short-term reduction in total cost. Beyond the short term, the CST did not confer cost or cost-effectiveness advantages.

Recently, several investigators have reported an association between influenza epidemics and increased birth rates of ‘preschizophrenic’ individuals some four to six months later. Here we examine whether maternal exposure to other infectious diseases can also predispose the foetus to later schizophrenia.

Two independent sets of dates of birth of first admission schizophrenic patients, born between 1938 and 1965 in England and Wales, were obtained from the Mental Health Enquiry in England and Wales. Data on the number of deaths per month from 16 infectious diseases between 1937 and 1965 in England and Wales were also collected. We used a Poisson regression model to examine the relationship between deaths from infectious diseases and schizophrenic births.

In the two separate data sets, increased national deaths from bronchopneumonia preceded, by three and five months respectively, increased numbers of schizophrenic births. We did not find any other significant associations between schizophrenic births and any of the other 15 infectious diseases.

The association between deaths from bronchopneumonia and increased schizophrenic births some months later may be a reflection of the fact that bronchopneumonia deaths increase markedly during influenza epidemics.

Attempted suicide rates are much higher in the UK than in the Netherlands. We have compared the characteristics of suicide attempters referred to general hospitals in Oxford and Utrecht.

We compared the characteristics of referrals for attempted suicide to a general hospital in Oxford and one in Utrecht, for the years 1988 and 1989.

Most of the attempters in Oxford were young whereas attempters in Utrecht were older; this age difference was particularly marked in females. Utrecht attempters appeared more often to have socio-economic problems and to suffer from psychiatric and personality disorders (except substance abuse), even when account was taken of the age differences of the two populations.

There is some evidence for different thresholds for attempted suicide in the UK and the Netherlands, although other social explanations for the difference in attempted suicide rates are feasible and require further study.

This exploratory study compares the prevalence of personality disorders and traits in people over and under 55 years of age. The comorbidity between personality and other psychiatric disorders is also examined.

Psychiatrists examined 810 subjects in a two-stage community survey. The semi-structured Standardized Psychiatric Examination was used to diagnose all DSM-III personality disorders and other psychiatric disorders.

The older subjects were significantly less likely than the younger subjects to have any personality disorder (6.6% v. 10.5%; relative odds = 0.42, 95% confidence interval = 0.25–0.70, P<0.001). Antisocial and histrionic personality disorders were much less prevalent in the older than younger subjects (P < 0.05). The older subjects also had significantly fewer maladaptive personality traits (x2 = 88.9, d.f. = 3, P < 0.001). The patterns of comorbidity between personality disorders and other psychiatric disorders were different in the two age groups.

It is important to evaluate personality in patients of all ages. While some older patients no longer meet criteria for personality disorder, maladaptive traits may become evident during times of stress.

The mind's ability to think about the mind has attracted substantial research interest in cognitive science in recent decades, as ‘theory of mind’. No research has attempted to identify the brain basis of this ability, probably because it involves several separate processes. As a first step, we investigated one component process – the ability to recognise mental state terms.

In Experiment 1, we tested a group of children with autism (known to have theory of mind deficits) and a control group of children with mental handicap, for their ability to recognise mental state terms in a word list. This was to test if the mental state recognition task was related to traditional theory of mind tests. In Experiment 2, we investigated if in the normal brain, recognition of mental state terms might be localised. The procedure employed single photon emission computerised tomography (SPECT) in normal adult volunteers. We tested the prediction (based on available neurological and animal lesion studies) that there would be increased activation in the orbito-frontal cortex during this task, relative to a control condition, and relative to an adjacent frontal area (frontal-polar cortex).

In Experiment 1, the group with autism performed significantly worse than the group without autism. In Experiment 2, there was increased cerebral blood flow during the mental state recognition task in the right orbito-frontal cortex relative to the left frontal-polar region.

This simple mental state recognition task appears to relate to theory of mind, in that both are impaired in autism. The SPECT results implicate the orbito-frontal cortex as the basis of this ability.

The widespread use of benzodiazepines has led to increasing recognition of their unwanted effects. The efficacy of alprazolam and placebo in panic disorder with agoraphobia, and the side-effect and adverse effect profiles of both drug groups were measured.

In London and Toronto 154 patients who met DSM–III criteria for panic disorder with agoraphobia were randomised to alprazolam or placebo. Subjects in each drug group also received either exposure or relaxation. Treatment was from weeks 0 to 8 and was then tapered from weeks 8 to 16.

Mean alprazolam dose was 5 mg daily. Compared with placebo subjects, alprazolam patients developed more adverse reactions (21 % v. 0%) of depression, enuresis, disinhibition and aggression; and more side-effects, particularly sedation, irritability, impaired memory, weight loss and ataxia. Side-effects tended to diminish during treatment but remained significant at week 8. Despite this, the drop-out rate was low.

Alprazolam caused side-effects and adverse effects during treatment but many patients were willing to accept these.

To investigate an association between HPA axis dysfunction, depression and cognitive impairment, we assessed subjects with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Sixteen non-depressed subjects with AD according to NINCDS/ADRDA criteria and 18 normal controls underwent the insulin hypoglycaemia (IH) test and the dexamethasone suppression test (DST).

The AD subjects showed a blunted response of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) to IH compared with controls (P = 0.019). ACTH response (area under curve) correlated with a score for cognitive ability (CAMCOG) (r = 0.64, P < 0.01). AD subjects had a shorter time to peak cortisol level than controls (P = 0.004), although total cortisol response was normal.

The AD subjects show evidence of adrenal hyper-responsiveness and normal immediate (rate-sensitive) glucocorticoid feedback. An association between HPA axis dysfunction and organic brain pathology in AD subjects may be mediated by cell loss in the hippocampus.

Most studies of chronic benzodiazepine users consider selected populations which may be unrepresentative. This study was undertaken to examine possible differences between groups.

Subjects chosen were benzodiazepine users in general practice, a hospital clinic, and attending TRANX trials. Descriptive data were collected on characteristics and outcome.

RANX trial patients had the best outcome (P = 0.027). Hospital cases used high doses of anxiolytic benzodiazepines; concomitant mental disorder, including schizophrenia, was common. General practice cases were older and mainly used hypnotics (P < 0.05).

Because groups of benzodiazepine users are different, there cannot be one single management approach. Cases require individual medical assessment.