Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-8kt4b Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-27T23:16:43.776Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 2 - Violence and Mental Disorder

Clinical Considerations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  aN Invalid Date NaN

Mary Davoren
Affiliation:
Broadmoor Hospital and West London NHS Trust
Harry G. Kennedy
Affiliation:
Trinity College Dublin
Get access

Summary

Violence is common and is a public health issue. Forensic psychiatrists offer treatment for the small amount of violence that is due to mental disorder. It is essential to distinguish between meaningful explanations and causes. Violence is not a unitary concept. Evidence for the specific causal associations between mental illness and violence is reviewed. Anger, anxiety, moral and amoral actions are reviewed including intoxication and withdrawal, deception, antisocial personality and psychopathy, and a range of mental illnesses and developmental disorders. Social and developmental factors are also important. Memes, media and social contagion influence the forms of violence. Court reports and treatments are considered critically in relation to violence.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Pinker, S. The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. New York, Viking, 2011.Google Scholar
Europe Co. Dangerous Offenders – Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)3 and Explanatory Report. Strasbourg, Council of Europe, 2014.Google Scholar
Kennedy, HG, Iveson, RC, Hill, O. Violence, homicide and suicide: strong correlation and wide variation across districts. British Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 175: 462–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beards, S, Gayer-Anderson, C, Borges, S et al. Life events and psychosis: a review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2013; 39 (4): 740–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bebbington, P. Causal models and logical inference in epidemiological psychiatry. British Journal of Psychiatry 1980; 136: 317–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everitt, B, Smith, A. Interactions in contingency tables: a brief discussion of alternative definitions. Psychological Medicine 1979; 9 (3): 581–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuffin, P, Katz, R, Bebbington, P. The Camberwell Collaborative Depression Study. III. Depression and adversity in the relatives of depressed probands. British Journal of Psychiatry 1988; 152: 775–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freestone, MC, Ullrich, S, Coid, JW. External trigger factors for violent offending: findings from the U.K. prisoner cohort study. Criminal Justice and Behavior 2017; 44 (11): 1389–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danese, A, Widom, CS. Objective and subjective experiences of child maltreatment and their relationships with psychopathology. Nature Human Behaviour 2020; 4 (8): 811–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Häfner, H, Boker, W, Kohler, C. Crimes of Violence by Mentally Abnormal Offenders: A Psychiatric and Epidemiological Study in the Federal German Republic. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Broker, W, Hafner, H. Crime of violence by mentally disordered offenders in Germany. Psychological Medicine 1977; 7: 733–6.Google Scholar
Gibbens, T. Gewalttaten Geistesgestörter–Eine psychiatrisch-epidemiologische Untersuchung in der Bundes-republik Deutschland (Crimes of Violence by Mentally Disordered Offenders in Germany: A Study in Psychiatric Epidemiology). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1973.Google Scholar
Taylor, PJ, Gunn, J. Violence and psychosis. I. Risk of violence among psychotic men. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 1984; 288 (6435): 1945–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wessely, S, Taylor, PJ. Madness and crime: criminology versus psychiatry. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 1991; 1 (3): 193228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, PJ, Gunn, J. Homicides by people with mental illness: myth and reality. British Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 174 (1): 914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, PE. A reassessment of the link between mental disorder and violent behaviour, and its implications for clinical practice. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1997; 31 (1): 311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallace, C, Mullen, PE, Burgess, P. Criminal offending in schizophrenia over a 25-year period marked by deinstitutionalization and increasing prevalence of comorbid substance use disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2004; 161 (4): 716–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Golenkov, A, Large, M, Nielssen, O, Tsymbalova, A. Forty-year study of rates of homicide by people with schizophrenia and other homicides in the Chuvash Republic of the Russian Federation. BJPsych Open 2021; 8 (1): e3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphreys, MS, Johnstone, EC, MacMillan, JF, Taylor, PJ. Dangerous behaviour preceding first admissions for schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 161 (4): 501–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielssen, O, Large, M. Rates of homicide during the first episode of psychosis and after treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2010; 36 (4): 702–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nielssen, OB, Malhi, GS, McGorry, PD, Large, MM. Overview of violence to self and others during the first episode of psychosis. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2012; 73 (5): e580–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swanson, JW, Holzer, CE, 3rd, Ganju, VK, Jono, RT. Violence and psychiatric disorder in the community: evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Hospital & Community Psychiatry 1990; 41 (7): 761–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Swanson, J, Estroff, S, Swartz, M et al. Violence and severe mental disorder in clinical and community populations: the effects of psychotic symptoms, comorbidity, and lack of treatment. Psychiatry 1997; 60 (1): 122.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Link, BG, Stueve, A. Psychotic Symptoms and the Violent/Illegal Behavior of Mental Patients Compared to Community Controls. Violence and Mental Disorder: Developments in Risk Assessment. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on mental health and development. Chicago, IL, The University of Chicago Press, 1994, pp. 137–59.Google Scholar
Ullrich, S, Keers, R, Coid, JW. Delusions, anger, and serious violence: new findings from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2014; 40 (5): 1174–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, YY, Yang, M, Ramsay, M, Li, XS, Coid, JW. A comparison of logistic regression, classification and regression tree, and neural networks models in predicting violent re-offending. Journal of Quantitative Criminology 2011; 27 (4): 547–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, H, Kemp, L, Dyer, D. Fear and anger in delusional (paranoid) disorder: The association with violence. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 160 (4): 488–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullrich, S, Keers, R, Shaw, J, Doyle, M, Coid, JW. Acting on delusions: the role of negative affect in the pathway towards serious violence. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 2018; 29 (5): 691704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coid, JW, Kallis, C, Doyle, M, Shaw, J, Ullrich, S. Shifts in positive and negative psychotic symptoms and anger: effects on violence. Psychological Medicine 2018; 48 (14): 2428–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coid, JW, Kallis, C, Doyle, M, Shaw, J, Ullrich, S. Identifying causal risk factors for violence among discharged patients. PLoS One 2015; 10 (11): e0142493.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffith, JJ, Meyer, D, Maguire, T, Ogloff, JRP, Daffern, M. A clinical decision support system to prevent aggression and reduce restrictive practices in a forensic mental health service. Psychiatric Services 2021; 72 (8): 885–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almvik, R, Woods, P, Rasmussen, K. The Brøset Violence Checklist: sensitivity, specificity, and interrater reliability. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 2000; 15 (12): 1284–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lockertsen, Ø, Varvin, S, Færden, A, Vatnar, SKB. Short-term risk assessments in an acute psychiatric inpatient setting: a re-examination of the Brøset Violence Checklist using repeated measurements – differentiating violence characteristics and gender. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 2021; 35 (1): 1726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, HG. Anger and irritability. British Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 161: 145–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel TR. The NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) project: precision medicine for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry 2014; 171 (4): 395–7.Google Scholar
Davoren, M, Kallis, C, González, RA, Freestone, M, Coid, JW. Anxiety disorders and intimate partner violence: can the association be explained by coexisting conditions or borderline personality traits? The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 2017; 28 (5): 639–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fava, M, Anderson, K, Rosenbaum, JF. ‘Anger attacks’: possible variants of panic and major depressive disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1990; 147 (7): 867–70.Google ScholarPubMed
Fava, M, Rosenbaum, JF. Anger attacks in depression. Depression and Anxiety 1998; 8 (Suppl. 1): 5963.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Reilly, K, O’Connell, P, Corvin, A et al. Moral cognition and homicide amongst forensic patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder: A cross-sectional cohort study. Schizophrenia Research 2018; 193: 468–9.Google ScholarPubMed
O’Reilly, K, O’Connell, P, O’Sullivan, D et al. Moral cognition, the missing link between psychotic symptoms and acts of violence: a cross-sectional national forensic cohort study. BMC Psychiatry. 2019; 19 (1): 408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science 2007; 316 (5827): 9981002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atran, S. The devoted actor: unconditional commitment and intractable conflict across cultures. Current Anthropology 2016; 57 (S13): S192S203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, H, Grubin, D. Patterns of denial in sex offenders. Psychological Medicine 1992; 22 (1): 191–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, PJ, Kopelman, MD. Amnesia for criminal offences. Psychological Medicine 1984; 14 (3): 581–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopelman, MD. Amnesia: organic and psychogenic. British Journal of Psychiatry 1987; 150 (4): 428–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopelman, MD. Psychogenic amnesia. The Handbook of Memory Disorders 2002; 2: 451–71.Google Scholar
McKay, GCM, Kopelman, MD. Psychogenic amnesia: when memory complaints are medically unexplained. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 2009; 15 (2): 152–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gudjonsson, GH, Kopelman, MD, MacKeith, JA. Unreliable admissions to homicide: a case of misdiagnosis of amnesia and misuse of abreaction technique. British Journal of Psychiatry 1999; 174: 455–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gudjonsson, G. Memory distrust syndrome, confabulation and false confession. Cortex 2017; 87: 156–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, RA, Kallis, C, Ullrich, S et al. Childhood maltreatment and violence: mediation through psychiatric morbidity. Child Abuse & Neglect 2016; 52: 7084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolvin, I, Miller, FJ, Fleeting, M, Kolvin, PA. Social and parenting factors affecting criminal-offence rates: findings from the Newcastle Thousand Family Study (1947–1980). The British Journal of Psychiatry 1988; 152 (1): 8090.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, DP, Coid, JW, Murray, J. Family factors in the intergenerational transmission of offending. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2009; 19 (2): 109–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, DP, Gundry, G, West, DJ. The familial transmission of criminality. Medicine, Science and the Law 1975; 15 (3): 177–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coid, JW, Ullrich, S, Keers, R et al. Gang membership, violence, and psychiatric morbidity. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2013; 170 (9): 985–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, JL, Kallis, C, Coid, JW. Differentiating gang members, gang affiliates, and violent men on their psychiatric morbidity and traumatic experiences. Psychiatry 2017; 80 (3): 221–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, DP, Ttofi, MM, Coid, JW. Development of adolescence-limited, late-onset, and persistent offenders from age 8 to age 48. Aggressive Behavior 2009; 35 (2): 150–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrington, DP, Ttofi, MM, Crago, RV, Coid, JW. Prevalence, frequency, onset, desistance and criminal career duration in self-reports compared with official records. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 2014; 24 (4): 241–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Schoeler, T, Theobald, D, Pingault, JB et al. Continuity of cannabis use and violent offending over the life course. Psychological Medicine 2016; 46 (8): 1663–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faris, REL, Dunham, HW. Mental Disorders in Urban Areas: An Ecological Study of Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1939.Google Scholar
O’Neill, C, Kelly, A, Sinclair, H, Kennedy, H. Deprivation: different implications for forensic psychiatric need in urban and rural areas. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2005; 40 (7): 551–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierzchniak, P, Farnham, F, Taranto, N et al. Assessing the needs of patients in secure settings: a multi-disciplinary approach. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry 1999; 10 (2): 343–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coid, JW. Socio-economic deprivation and admission rates to secure forensic psychiatry services. Psychiatric Bulletin 1998; 22 (5): 294–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coid, J, Kahtan, N, Cook, A, Gault, S, Jarman, B. Predicting admission rates to secure forensic psychiatry services. Psychological Medicine 2001; 31 (3): 531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazel, S, Smith, EN, Chang, Z, Geddes, JR. Risk factors for interpersonal violence: an umbrella review of meta-analyses. British Journal of Psychiatry 2018; 213 (4): 609–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Orford, J. Excessive Appetites: A Psychological View of Addictions, 2nd ed. New York, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2001.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. Clinical Psychiatry: A Text-Book for Students and Physicians, Abstracted and Adapted from the Seventh German ed. of Kraepelin’s ‘Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie’. Bristol, Thoemmes Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. Lectures on Clinical Psychiatry. New York, Hafner, 1968.Google Scholar
Connell, PH. Amphetamine psychosis. BMJ 1957; 1 (5018): 582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, PH. Drug addiction [abridged]: amphetamine dependence. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 1968; 61 (2): 178–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Kanaan, RA, Carson, A, Wessely, SC et al. What’s so special about conversion disorder? A problem and a proposal for diagnostic classification. British Journal of Psychiatry 2010; 196 (6): 427–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bass, C, Halligan, P. Factitious disorders and malingering in relation to functional neurologic disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 2016; 139: 509–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bass, C, Wade, DT. Malingering and factitious disorder. Practical Neurology 2019; 19 (2): 96105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kanaan, RAA, Wessely, SC. The origins of factitious disorder. History of the Human Sciences 2010; 23 (2): 6885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kenny, A. The psychiatric expert in court. Psychological Medicine 1984; 14 (2): 291302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parnell, TF, Day, DO. Munchausen by Proxy Syndrome: Misunderstood Child Abuse. New York, SAGE Publications, 1997.Google Scholar
Orbach, B, Huang, L. Con men and their enablers: the anatomy of confidence games. Social Research: An International Quarterly 2018; 85 (4): 795822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freestone, M, Howard, R, Coid, JW, Ullrich, S. Adult antisocial syndrome co-morbid with borderline personality disorder is associated with severe conduct disorder, substance dependence and violent antisociality. Personal Mental Health 2013; 7 (1): 1121.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brittain, RP. The sadistic murderer. Medicine, Science and the Law 1970; 10 (4): 198207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacCulloch, MJ, Snowden, PR, Wood, PJ, Mills, HE. Sadistic fantasy, sadistic behaviour and offending. British Journal of Psychiatry 1983; 143: 20–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiting, D, Gulati, G, Geddes, JR, Fazel, S. Association of schizophrenia spectrum disorders and violence perpetration in adults and adolescents from 15 countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2022; 79 (2): 120–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodgins, S, Mednick, SA, Brennan, PA, Schulsinger, F, Engberg, M. Mental disorder and crime: evidence from a Danish birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry 1996; 53 (6): 489–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodgins, S. Violent behaviour among people with schizophrenia: a framework for investigations of causes, and effective treatment, and prevention. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2008; 363 (1503): 2505–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazel, S, Wolf, A, Palm, C, Lichtenstein, P. Violent crime, suicide, and premature mortality in patients with schizophrenia and related disorders: a 38-year total population study in Sweden. The Lancet Psychiatry 2014; 1 (1): 4454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fleischman, A, Werbeloff, N, Yoffe, R, Davidson, M, Weiser, M. Schizophrenia and violent crime: a population-based study. Psychological Medicine 2014; 44 (14): 3051–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uhrskov Sørensen, L, Bengtson, S, Lund, J, Ibsen, M, Långström, N. Mortality among male forensic and non-forensic psychiatric patients: matched cohort study of rates, predictors and causes-of-death. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 2020: 18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgins, S, Piatosa, MJ, Schiffer, B. Violence among people with schizophrenia: phenotypes and neurobiology. Neuroscience of Aggression 2013: 329–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flynn, D, Smith, D, Quirke, L, Monks, S, Kennedy, HG. Ultra high risk of psychosis on committal to a young offender prison: an unrecognised opportunity for early intervention. BMC Psychiatry 2012; 12: 100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGorry, PD, Hartmann, JA, Spooner, R, Nelson, B. Beyond the ‘at risk mental state’ concept: transitioning to transdiagnostic psychiatry. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA) 2018; 17 (2): 133–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Reilly, K, Donohoe, G, Coyle, C et al. Prospective cohort study of the relationship between neuro-cognition, social cognition and violence in forensic patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. BMC Psychiatry 2015; 15: 155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O’Reilly, K, O’Connell, P, Ryan, A et al. Deficit not bias: a quantifiable neuropsychological model of delusions. Schizophrenia Research 2020; 222: 496–8. doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.05.055.Google ScholarPubMed
Coid, JW, Ullrich, S, Bebbington, P, Fazel, S, Keers, R. Paranoid ideation and violence: meta-analysis of individual subject data of 7 population surveys. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2016; 42 (4): 907–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coid, JW, Ullrich, S, Kallis, C et al. The relationship between delusions and violence: findings from the East London first episode psychosis study. JAMA Psychiatry 2013; 70 (5): 465–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazel, S, Zetterqvist, J, Larsson, H, Långström, N, Lichtenstein, P. Antipsychotics, mood stabilisers, and risk of violent crime. Lancet 2014; 384 (9949): 1206–14.Google ScholarPubMed
Topiwala, A, Fazel, S. The pharmacological management of violence in schizophrenia: a structured review. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics 2011; 11 (1): 5363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witt, K, van Dorn, R, Fazel, S. Risk factors for violence in psychosis: systematic review and meta-regression analysis of 110 studies. PLoS One 2013; 8 (2): e55942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Citrome, L, Volavka, J, Czobor, P et al. Effects of clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, and haloperidol on hostility among patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services 2001; 52 (11): 1510–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krakowski, M, Tural, U, Czobor, P. The importance of conduct disorder in the treatment of violence in schizophrenia: efficacy of clozapine compared with olanzapine and haloperidol. American Journal of Psychiatry 2021; 178 (3): 266–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keers, R, Ullrich, S, Destavola, BL, Coid, JW. Association of violence with emergence of persecutory delusions in untreated schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2014; 171 (3): 332–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherd, M. Morbid jealousy: some clinical and social aspects of a psychiatric symptom. Journal of Mental Science 1961; 107 (449): 687753.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mullen, PE. Jealousy: the pathology of passion. British Journal of Psychiatry 1991; 158 (5): 593601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neeleman, J, Wessely, S, Wadsworth, M. Predictors of suicide, accidental death, and premature natural death in a general-population birth cohort. Lancet 1998; 351 (9096): 93–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abidin, Z, Davoren, M, Naughton, L et al. Susceptibility (risk and protective) factors for in-patient violence and self-harm: prospective study of structured professional judgement instruments START and SAPROF, DUNDRUM-3 and DUNDRUM-4 in forensic mental health services. BMC Psychiatry 2013; 13: 197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D’Orbán, PT. Women who kill their children. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1979; 134 (6): 560–71.Google ScholarPubMed
The Victoria Climbie Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Lord Laming. London, HM Stationery Office, 2003.Google Scholar
Carabellese, F, Rocca, G, Candelli, C, Catanesi, R. Mental illness, violence and delusional misidentifications: the role of Capgras’ syndrome in matricide. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 2014; 21: 913.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubens, M, Shehadeh, N. Gun violence in United States: in search for a solution. Frontiers in Public Health 2014; 2: 17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mullen, PE. The autogenic (self-generated) massacre. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 2004; 22 (3): 311–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peterson, J, Erickson, G, Knapp, K, Densley, J. Communication of intent to do harm preceding mass public shootings in the United States, 1966 to 2019. JAMA Network Open 2021; 4 (11): e2133073.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meloy, JR, O’Toole, ME. The concept of leakage in threat assessment. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 2011; 29 (4): 513–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
d’Orban, P. Child stealing: a typology of female offenders. The British Journal of Criminology 1976; 16 (3): 275–81.Google Scholar
d’Orbán, P. Child stealing and pseudocyesis. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1982; 141 (2): 196–8.Google ScholarPubMed
d’Orbán, P, Haydn-Smith, P. Men who steal children. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) 1985; 290 (6484): 1784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phillips, EM. Pain, suffering, and humiliation: the systemization of violence in kidnapping for ransom. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2011; 20 (8): 845–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forest, JJF. Global trends in kidnapping by terrorist groups. Global Change, Peace & Security 2012; 24 (3): 311–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, HG, Dyer, DE. Parental hostage takers. British Journal of Psychiatry 1992; 160: 410–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohandie, K, Meloy, JR. Clinical and forensic indicators of ‘suicide by cop’. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2000; 45 (2): 384–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutson, HR, Anglin, D, Yarbrough, J et al. Suicide by cop. Annals of Emergency Medicine 1998; 32 (6): 665–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atran, S, Sheikh, H, Gomez, A. Devoted actors sacrifice for close comrades and sacred cause. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2014; 111 (50): 17702–3.Google ScholarPubMed
van Voren, R. Ending political abuse of psychiatry: where we are at and what needs to be done. BJPsych Bulletin 2016; 40 (1): 30–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jessor, R, Jessor, SL. Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth. New York, Academic Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Kennedy, HG, Mullaney, R, McKenna, P et al. A tool to evaluate proportionality and necessity in the use of restrictive practices in forensic mental health settings: the DRILL tool (Dundrum restriction, intrusion and liberty ladders). BMC Psychiatry 2020; 20 (1): 515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broderick, C, Azizian, A, Kornbluh, R, Warburton, K. Prevalence of physical violence in a forensic psychiatric hospital system during 2011–2013: patient assaults, staff assaults, and repeatedly violent patients. CNS Spectrums 2015; 20 (3): 319–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fallon, P, Bluglass, R, Daniels, G, Edwards, B. Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Personality Disorder Unit, Ashworth Special Hospital Volume 1. London, HM Stationery Office, 1999.Google Scholar
Warden, J. Ashworth report confirms problems with special hospitals. BMJ 1999; 318 (7178): 211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, H, Evans, R. Rethinking Expertise. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Kenny, A. Freewill and Responsibility (Routledge Revivals). London, Taylor & Francis, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kenny, A. The Metaphysics of Mind. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grounds, A. On describing mental states. British Journal of Medical Psychology 1987; 60 (4): 305–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hacking, I. Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personalities and the Sciences of Memory. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broughton, RJ. Sleep disorders: disorders of arousal? Enuresis, somnambulism, and nightmares occur in confusional states of arousal, not in ‘dreaming sleep’. Science 1968; 159 (3819): 1070–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shaw, S. The dangerousness of dangerousness. Medicine, Science and the Law 1973; 13 (4): 269–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, P. Assessing dangerousness in criminals. British Journal of Psychiatry 1977; 131 (2): 127–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boons, L, Jeandarme, I, Vervaeke, G. Androgen deprivation therapy in pedophilic disorder: exploring the physical, psychological, and sexual effects from a patient’s perspective. The Journal of Sexual Medicine 2021; 18 (2): 353–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thibaut, F, Cosyns, P, Fedoroff, JP et al. The World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) 2020 guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of paraphilic disorders. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 2020; 21 (6): 412–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sariaslan, A, Leucht, S, Zetterqvist, J, Lichtenstein, P, Fazel, S. Associations between individual antipsychotics and the risk of arrests and convictions of violent and other crime: a nationwide within-individual study of 74 925 persons. Psychological Medicine 2021: 19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coid, J, Hickey, N, Kahtan, N, Zhang, T, Yang, M. Patients discharged from medium secure forensic psychiatry services: reconvictions and risk factors. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2007; 190 (3): 223–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doyle, M, Power, LA, Coid, J et al. Predicting post-discharge community violence in England and Wales using the HCR-20V3. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 2014; 13 (2): 140–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doyle, M, Dolan, M. Predicting community violence from patients discharged from mental health services. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2006; 189 (6): 520–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jewell, A, Cocks, C, Cullen, AE, Fahy, T, Dean, K. Predicting time to recall in patients conditionally released from a secure forensic hospital: a survival analysis. European Psychiatry 2018; 49: 18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jamieson, L, Taylor, PJ, Gibson, B. From pathological dependence to healthy independence: an emergent grounded theory of facilitating independent living. The Grounded Theory Review 2006; 6 (1): 79108.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×