Book contents
- Seminars in Forensic Psychiatry
- College Seminars Series
- Seminars in Forensic Psychiatry
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Foreword
- Introduction
- Chapter 1 Violence and Mental Disorder
- Chapter 2 Violence and Mental Disorder
- Chapter 3 Outcomes from the Key Inquiries and the Evolution of Modern Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 4 Prison Psychiatry
- Chapter 5 Legal Issues and Expertise in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 6 Expertise, Structured Professional Judgement and Risk Assessment
- Chapter 7 Models of Care in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 8 Psychopharmacology of Chronic Aggression and Violence in Forensic Settings
- Chapter 9 Ward Milieu and the Management of In-Patient Violence
- Chapter 10 Community Forensic Psychiatry Including Liaison with Health, Criminal Justice and Public Protection Agencies
- Chapter 11 Assessment of Personality Disorder, Psychopathy and Associated Offending Behaviour
- Chapter 12 Stalking and Threats to Harm and Kill
- Chapter 13 Sexual Offending
- Chapter 14 Terrorism-Related Assessments
- Chapter 15 Forensic Psychotherapy and Psychological Therapies in Forensic Mental Health Settings
- Chapter 16 Forensic Aspects of Medical Negligence
- Chapter 17 Child and Adolescent Forensic Mental Health Services
- Chapter 18 Women’s Services in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 19 Forensic Psychiatry and Intellectual Disability
- Chapter 20 Cultural Service Delivery in Forensic Mental Health Services
- Chapter 21 Tackling Ethnic Inequality in Forensic Mental Healthcare
- Chapter 22 Academic Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 23 The No-Nonsense Guides
- Index
- References
Chapter 21 - Tackling Ethnic Inequality in Forensic Mental Healthcare
Published online by Cambridge University Press: aN Invalid Date NaN
Book contents
- Seminars in Forensic Psychiatry
- College Seminars Series
- Seminars in Forensic Psychiatry
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Foreword
- Introduction
- Chapter 1 Violence and Mental Disorder
- Chapter 2 Violence and Mental Disorder
- Chapter 3 Outcomes from the Key Inquiries and the Evolution of Modern Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 4 Prison Psychiatry
- Chapter 5 Legal Issues and Expertise in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 6 Expertise, Structured Professional Judgement and Risk Assessment
- Chapter 7 Models of Care in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 8 Psychopharmacology of Chronic Aggression and Violence in Forensic Settings
- Chapter 9 Ward Milieu and the Management of In-Patient Violence
- Chapter 10 Community Forensic Psychiatry Including Liaison with Health, Criminal Justice and Public Protection Agencies
- Chapter 11 Assessment of Personality Disorder, Psychopathy and Associated Offending Behaviour
- Chapter 12 Stalking and Threats to Harm and Kill
- Chapter 13 Sexual Offending
- Chapter 14 Terrorism-Related Assessments
- Chapter 15 Forensic Psychotherapy and Psychological Therapies in Forensic Mental Health Settings
- Chapter 16 Forensic Aspects of Medical Negligence
- Chapter 17 Child and Adolescent Forensic Mental Health Services
- Chapter 18 Women’s Services in Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 19 Forensic Psychiatry and Intellectual Disability
- Chapter 20 Cultural Service Delivery in Forensic Mental Health Services
- Chapter 21 Tackling Ethnic Inequality in Forensic Mental Healthcare
- Chapter 22 Academic Forensic Psychiatry
- Chapter 23 The No-Nonsense Guides
- Index
- References
Summary
There are well-known, significant racial disparities in mental healthcare access, experience and outcome. The additional duty of forensic mental health practitioners to be always mindful of public protection means that it is imperative that all steps are taken to reduce the risk that individuals with mental disorder may pose to others, as well as themselves. Forensic mental healthcare focusses on secondary prevention – preventing known patients from relapsing and re-offending – recurrence of violence. The evidence increasingly points to the fact that forensic mental health services are doing this more successfully with some sections of the population we serve than others.
Keywords
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Seminars in Forensic Psychiatry , pp. 417 - 433Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2024
References
Ali, S, Dearman, SP, McWilliam, C. Are Asians at greater risk of compulsory psychiatric admission than Caucasians in the acute general adult setting? Medicine, Science and the Law 2007; 47 (4): 311–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, P, Mackay, E, Matthews, H et al. Ethnic variations in compulsory detention under the Mental Health Act: a systematic review and meta-analysis of international data. Lancet Psychiatry 2019; 6 (4): 305–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhui, K, Stansfeld, S, Hull, S et al. Ethnic variations in pathways to and use of specialist mental health services in the UK. Systematic review. British Journal of Psychiatry 2003; 182: 105–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archie, S, Akhtar-Danesh, N, Norman, RM et al. Ethnic diversity and pathways to care for a first episode of psychosis in Ontario. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2010; 36 (4): 688–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halvorsrud, K, Nazroo, J, Otis, M, Brown Hajdukova, E, Bhui, K. Ethnic inequalities and pathways to care in psychosis in England: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Medicine 2018; 16 (1): 223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Modernising the Mental Health Act: Increasing Choice, Reducing Compulsion. London, Department of Health, 2018. www.gov.uk/government/publications/modernising-the-mental-health-act-final-report-from-the-independent-review.Google Scholar
NHS Digital. Mental Health Statistics: Annual Figures, 2018–2019. NHS Digital, London, 2019.Google Scholar
Das-Munshi, J, Bhugra, D, Crawford, MJ. Ethnic minority inequalities in access to treatments for schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders: findings from a nationally representative cross-sectional study. BMC Medicine 2018; 16 (1): 55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payne-Gill, J, Whitfield, C, Beck, A. The relationship between ethnic background and the use of restrictive practices to manage incidents of violence or aggression in psychiatric inpatient settings. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 2021; 30 (5): 1221–1233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bruce, M, Smith, J. Length of stay among multi-ethnic psychiatric inpatients in the United Kingdom. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2020; 102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kapadia, D, Zhang, J, Salway, S et al. Ethnic Inequalities in Healthcare: A Rapid Review. NHS Race & Health Observatory, 2022. www.nhsrho.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/RHO-Rapid-Review-Final-Report_v.7.pdf.Google Scholar
Bansal, N, Bhopal, R, Netto, G et al. Disparate patterns of hospitalisation reflect unmet needs and persistent ethnic inequalities in mental health care: the Scottish health and ethnicity linkage study. Ethnicity & Health 2014; 19 (2): 217–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
The Lammy Review: An Independent Review into the Treatment of, and Outcomes for, Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Individuals in the Criminal Justice System. 2017. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/643001/lammy-review-final-report.pdf.Google Scholar
Ministry of Justice. Ethnicity and the Criminal Justice System Statistics 2020. www.gov.uk/government/statistics/ethnicity-and-the-criminal-justice-system-statistics-2020/ethnicity-and-the-criminal-justice-system-2020.Google Scholar
Joyce, S, O’Reilly, O, O’Brien, M et al. Irish Travellers’ Access to Justice. University of Limerick, Report, 2022. https://hdl.handle.net/10344/11203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raleigh, V, Holmes, J. The Health of People from Ethnic Minority Groups in England. Kings Fund, 2021. www.kingsfund.org.uk/publications/health-people-ethnic-minority-groups-england.Google Scholar
UK Government. Ethnicity Facts and Figures. Crime, Justice and the Law, 2020. www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/crime-justice-and-the-law/courts-sentencing-and-tribunals/prosecutions-and-convictions/latest.Google Scholar
Stott, C, Radburn, M, Kyprianides, A et al. Understanding Ethnic Disparities in Involvement in Crime: A Limited Scope Rapid Evidence Review, 2021. www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-report-of-the-commission-on-race-and-ethnic-disparities-supporting-research/understanding-ethnic-disparities-in-involvement-in-crime-a-limited-scope-rapid-evidence-review-by-professor-clifford-stott-et-al.Google Scholar
Office for National Statistics. Homicide in England and Wales: Year Ending March 2022. www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/homicideinenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2022.Google Scholar
Coid, JW, Ullrich, S, Keers, R et al. Gang membership, violence, and psychiatric morbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry 2013; 170 (9): 985–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grann, M, Fazel, S. Substance misuse and violent crime: Swedish population study. BMJ 2004; 22(328): 1233–4.Google Scholar
House of Commons Women and Equalities Committee. Tackling Inequalities Faced by Gypsy, Roma and Traveller Communities. 2019. Seventh Report of Session 2017–19. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201719/cmselect/cmwomeq/360/full-report.html.Google Scholar
Kingery, PM, Zimmerman, RS, Biafora, FA. Risk factors for violent behaviors among ethnically diverse urban adolescents: beyond race/ethnicity. School Psychology International 1996; 17 (2): 171–86.Google Scholar
Farrington, DP, Loeber, R, Stouthamer-Loeber, M, Van Kammen, WB, Schmidt, L. Self-reported delinquency and a combined delinquency seriousness scale based on boys, mothers, and teachers: concurrent and predictive validity for African-Americans and Caucasians. Criminology 1996; 34: 493–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HM Government. Serious Violence Strategy, 2018. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/698009/serious-violence-strategy.pdf.Google Scholar
Smith, V, Wynne-McHardy, E. An analysis of indicators of serious violence: findings from the Millenium Cohort Study and the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, 2019. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/819840/analysis-of-indicators-of-serious-violence-horr110.pdf.Google Scholar
McNeil, A, Wheller, L. Knife crime. Evidence briefing. College of Policing Report, 2019. https://assets.college.police.uk/s3fs-public/2022-03/Knife_Crime_Evidence_Briefing.pdf.Google Scholar
Haylock, S, Boshari, T, Alexander, EC et al. Risk factors associated with knife-crime in United Kingdom among young people aged 10-24 years: a systematic review. BMC Public Health 2020; 20 (1): 1451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
UK Government. Mental Health Environmental Factors, 2019. www.gov.uk/government/publications/better-mental-health-jsna-toolkit/2-understanding-place.Google Scholar
Felitti, VJ, Anda, RF, Nordenberg, D et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998; 14 (4): 245–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, R, Widom, CS, Browne, K et al. Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in high-income countries. Lancet 2009; 373 (9657): 68–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClelland, H, Evans, JJ, Nowland, R et al. Loneliness as a predictor of suicidal ideation and behaviour: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Journal of Affective Disorders 2020; 274: 880–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatch, SL, Gazard, B, Williams, DR et al. Discrimination and common mental disorder among migrant and ethnic groups: findings from a South East London Community sample. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2016; 51: 689–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, J, Rafiq, S, Simpson, J, Varese, F. Perceived discrimination and psychosis: a systematic review of the literature. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 2019; 54 (9): 1023–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rethink Mental Illness. The Abandoned Illness: A Report by the Schizophrenia Commission, 2012. www.rethink.org/media/2629/the-abandonned-illness_tsc_executive_summary_14_nov.pdf.Google Scholar
Morgan, C, Cohen, A, Esponda, GM et al. Epidemiology of untreated psychoses in 3 diverse settings in the global south: the International Research Program on Psychotic Disorders in Diverse Settings (INTREPID II). JAMA Psychiatry 2023; 80 (1): 40–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, C, Knowles, G, Hutchinson, G. Migration, ethnicity and psychoses: evidence, models and future directions. World Psychiatry 2019; 18 (3): 247–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, CP. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health 2000; 90 (8): 1212–15.Google Scholar
Harwood, H, Rhead, R, Chui, Z et al. Variations by ethnicity in referral and treatment pathways for IAPT service users in South London. Psychological Medicine 2023; 53 (3): 1084–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Improving Access to Psychological Therapies Team. Psychological Therapies: Annual Report on the Use of IAPT Services 2019–20. NHS Digital, 2020.Google Scholar
Evans, L. A Radical Approach to Tackling Knife Crime in Scotland. Cabinet Office, 2019. https://quarterly.blog.gov.uk/2019/07/04/a-radical-approach-to-tackling-knife-crime-in-scotland.Google Scholar
National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Advancing Mental Health Equality Resource, 2019 www.rcpsych.ac.uk/improving-care/nccmh/service-design-and-development/advancing-mental-health-equality.Google Scholar
Smith, SM, Kheri, A, Ariyo, K et al. The Patient and Carer Race Equality Framework: a model to reduce mental health inequity in England and Wales. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2023; 14: 1053502. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1053502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santana, M, Manalili, K, Zelinsky, S et al. Improving the quality of person-centred healthcare from the patient perspective: development of person-centred quality indicators. BMJ Open 2020; 10: e037323. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curtis, E, Jones, R, Tipene-Leach, D et al. Why cultural safety rather than cultural competency is required to achieve health equity: a literature review and recommended definition. International Journal for Equity in Health 2019; 18: 174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, JP, Hugenberg, K, Rule, NO. Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: from size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2017; 113 (1): 59–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hugenberg, K, Bodenhausen, GV. Ambiguity in social categorization: the role of prejudice and facial affect in race categorization. Psychological Science 2004; 15 (5): 342–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, B. Differential social perception and attribution of intergroup violence: testing the lower limits of stereotyping of blacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1976; 34 (4): 590–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heilbrun, K, Kavanaugh, A, Grisso, T et al. The importance of racial identity in forensic mental health assessment. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 2021; 49 (4): 478–87.Google ScholarPubMed
Carter R, . Racism and psychological and emotional injury: recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counselling Psychologist 2007; 35 (1): 13–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nazroo, JY, Bhui, KS, Rhodes, J. Where next for understanding race/ethnic inequalities in severe mental illness? Structural, interpersonal and institutional racism. Sociology of Health and Illness 2020; 42: 262–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arya, D, Connolly, C, Yeoman, B. Black and minority ethnic groups and forensic mental health. BJPsych Open 2021; 7 (suppl. 1): S123.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thornberry, TP, Lizotte, AJ, Krohn, MD, Smith, CA, Porter, PK. Causes and consequences of delinquency: findings from the Rochester Youth Development Study. In Thornberry, TP and Krohn, MD (eds) Taking Stock of Delinquency: An Overview of Findings from Contemporary Longitudinal Studies. New York, Kluwer Academic, 2003, pp. 11–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Home Office, The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an Inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny, Cm 4262-I, February 1999. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf.Google Scholar