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3079 results in Jagiellonian University Press

Page 51 of 154

  • Categorising and (re)conceptualising

  • from PART THREE - THE QUESTION OF GENRE
  • Katarzyna Bazarnik
  • Book:
    Liberature: A Book-bound Genre
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    22 December 2017
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 123-134

  • Summary

    Ideas and shadows

    As signalled above, the categorisation of texts into genres can be carried out according to different criteria related to knowledge, purpose, and even the philosophical stance, worldview or ideology motivating the categorising agent (Ulbak 2015: 428–429, 435). This raises the question of the inescapable subjectivity of classification. The problem of subjectivity may be partly alleviated by resorting to the concept of the interpretive (discourse) community; a community that sustains and perpetuates particular ways of creating texts, and inferring meanings from them, in accordance with what is considered relevant by both readers and writers. Hence, Frow defines genres as “frames that establish appropriate ways of reading or viewing or listening to texts […] made up of material and formal features, a particular thematic structure, a situation of address which mobilises a set of rhetorical purposes, and a more general structure of implications” (2006: 31). A common feature of literary genre theories is that prime importance is attached to stylistic variables; that is, choices in linguistic form that are motivated by aesthetic, thematic and rhetorical concerns (which can be seen as the modern expression of decorum). It is this factor that seems to play an instrumental role in distinguishing among literary forms. But Frow draws our attention to the fact that the organisational (or else compositional) and rhetorical variables of literary genres may also be related to the non-linguistic submodes of language. As I have noted, these submodes are crucial for setting liberature apart from other types of literary texts. The concept of liberature enables us to distinguish between works whose authors make use of them and deliberately hybridise the linguistic and bibliographical codes treating the form of the book as a sign in its own right, and those who leave such decisions to others, judging them to be semantically and aesthetically irrelevant. This is a valuable nuance since some authors choose to utilise only the typographic submode, or use non-verbal codes in parts of their works, which makes their texts akin to, but not identical with, liberature.

    Frow defines genres as frames that structure the conditions of comprehension and interpretation. In his discussion of this he focuses on recipients who act as genre verifiers. However, it is evident that authors play a comparably significant role, both in terms of the formation of genres and their ongoing function.

  • Genre functions

  • from PART THREE - THE QUESTION OF GENRE
  • Katarzyna Bazarnik
  • Book:
    Liberature: A Book-bound Genre
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    22 December 2017
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 145-156

  • Summary

    Genre as a (proto)type

    Institutions for storing and accessing knowledge (schools, libraries, dictionaries, encyclopedias, databases, etc.) are an important cultural environment in which genres perform their categorising function. In connection with teaching and cataloguing, John Swales remarks that “it is apparently common in classificatory work to consider genres as ‘ideal types’ rather than actual entities. Actual texts deviate from the ideal in various kinds of ways,” but some simplification for the sake of practicality is unavoidable and does not invalidate the usefulness of genre as such (Swales 1990: 34). Likewise, drawing on the work of E.D. Hirsch, Alastair Fowler points to the advantages of construing genre in terms of the prototype (1982: 41– 42). He notes that a type, unlike a class, may include only a singular specimen, which seems to partly alleviate the Crocean dilemma. Besides, not all specimens belonging to a type need to display the same characteristic (which, as he claims, is essential for a member of a class; Fowler 1982: 38). As a consequence, he suggests that genre is better understood as a framework within which works are compared synchronically and diachronically for shared characteristics in a heuristic way (see also Rosch 1978: 36–37; Ulbak 2015: 432–433; Fishelov 1993: 53–84), rather than being tested for their purity, and eliminated if they do not fulfill specific criteria.

    Stressing the practical or utilitarian aspect of genre use, Fowler calls this approach functional; a position shared by Dirk de Geest and Hendrik van Gorp, who discuss genre from the systemic-functional perspective. Taking their inspiration from cognitive psychology and linguistics, the Belgian scholars argue for genres to be understood as “prototypically structured categories” (de Geest and van Gorp 1999: 39–42). In their view, genre should be seen as a loose set within which some elements are located closer to the centre, while others hover on the edges, without forming any distinct borderline. The centre of such a set is determined by a prototypical work that contains the highest possible concentration of features associated with a genre. But we must bear in mind that the prototype does not need to be any actually existing text. It is rather a conceptual model against which actual works can be tested to determine their relation to the prototype.

  • 18 - Problems and Pitfalls of Qualification for Extracorporeal Treatment of Patients in Severe Hypothermia

    • By Anna Jarosz, “Heat for Life” Foundation, Cracow, Poland, Sylweriusz Kosiński, Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care, Pulmonary Hospital, Zakopane, Poland, Tomasz Darocha, “Heat for Life” Foundation, Cracow, Poland, Hubert Hymczak, Tatra Mountain Rescue Service, Zakopane, Poland, Peter Paal, Head of the Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Hospitallers Brother Hospital, Salzburg, Austria, Rafał Drwiła, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland
  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 161-168

  • Summary

    If indications for extracorporeal rewarming in hypothermia are clearly defined, the problems one might encounter in practice have not been, as yet, delineated. Isolated reports on “qualification pitfalls” appear in certain case studies, but majority of these constitute only relative contraindications. In patients with instability of cardiovascular system, and cardiac arrest in particular, decision to qualify for extracorporeal rewarming must be immediate. At the same time, diagnostic possibilities are significantly limited (incoming reports from emergency medical teams or mountain rescue services, patients undergoing resuscitation or extremely unstable). In such instances not qualification, but denial of extracorporeal treatment may present the greatest challenge on both clinical as well as ethical planes.

    The compilation of problems and pitfalls experienced during qualification procedure is based upon several months of work of Severe Hypothermia Treatment Centre coordinators in Kraków. It is until now the only centre specialising in extracorporeal rewarming in Poland, and the only one operating according to proprietary, uniform algorithm. This has allowed to observe recurrence of certain conditions, assess their importance and draw appropriate conclusions. ECMO therapy carries a risk of grave complications, but majority of these can be avoided by means of proper qualification procedure and avoidance of factors which affect the very treatment. As emphasised before, the problems described below constitute merely relative contraindications, and thanks to good long term outcomes of extracorporeal rewarming, they should be considered in relation to a complete disorder evaluation and discussed by the team involved in the treatment.

    Thrombocytopenia and/or clinically important anaemia

    These disorders are present in patients belonging to so called “underclass”, but also in the elderly, neglected and malnutrition stricken victims of “urban hypothermia.” The values of haemoglobin seen in our patients reached even 3.6 mg/dL and thrombocyte count 18,000/mL. It should be stressed that even such low parameters do not constitute a contraindication for extracorporeal rewarming, yet require intervention.

  • 16 - Extracorporeal Therapy in Patients in Severe Hypothermia

    • By Rafał Drwiła, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland
  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 145-154

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Fast pace of technology advancement, which has been observed since the beginning of 21st century, gives at the disposal of therapeutic teams possibilities which had been practiced priorly only in selected, highly specialised medical centres. Exhaustion of pharmacological means of treatment of acute and end-stage circulatory failure has pointed the attention of the researchers to use of mechanical support and replacement of heart function also outside of specialised cardiac surgery centres, i.e. in other medical facilities, such as emergency care wards. System of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is currently implemented for various indications.

    The most important of them are:

  • • cardiac indications resulting from myocardial heart failure;

  • • pulmonary indications resulting from pulmonary failure;

  • • other indications (severe hypothermia, poisonings, septic shock et al.);

  • • organ transplantation indications (support of organs functions).

    • In this paper I would like to present basic ECMO principles and uses, along with applications in emergency care.

    History of ECMO use

    The first application of extracorporeal circulation during cardiac surgery was described by Gibbon in 1953. Unfortunately, the device used then was unable to operate for longer than 6 hours. In 1971 Hill reported on three- -day-long treatment of a patient in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), what made the method popular in treatment of patients with lung damage. The genuine breakthrough in extracorporeal blood oxygenation was the establishment of Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO) in New Orleans, monitoring and coordinating the development of this method in various medical centres. Large multi-centre, randomised trial (CESAR), published in 2009, has shown a substantial reduction of fatality rate among patients with ARDS treated with ECMO in veno-venous configuration. H1N1 influenza pandemic has made medical professionals and decision-makers aware of the necessity to further develop the technology. ECMO in veno-arterial configuration is currently used for treatment of circulatory failure of different aetiology. It should be remembered that the usage of ECMO is practiced in a patient group distinguished by almost 100% fatality rate. According to ELSO report the number of ECMO usages in almost 300 centres cooperating with the organisation has exceeded 50,000 in 2012.

  • 17 - Vascular Access for Extracorporeal Circulation

    • By Jacek Piątek, Department of Cardiovascular Surgery and Transplantology, Jagiellonian University Collegium Medicum, Cracow, Poland, Janusz Konstanty-Kalandyk, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland
  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 155-160

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Systems of extracorporeal life support may be integrated with patient's vascular system both by central access (in the area of thorax) or a peripheral one. The basic criterion for choice of place of catheterisation is the vessel's diameter. Technological advancement has enabled reduction of catheter size with maintenance of adequate volume of blood circulating in the system. This, in turn, enables efficient support and even full substitution of circulation via peripheral access. Most often chosen catheterisation vessels are femoral vessels, less often external iliac artery, common carotid artery and subclavian artery. Apart from the diameter, anatomic topography and patient's clinical condition are further factors for choice of catheterisation place.

    Femoral access

    Femoral artery is a continuation of external iliac artery and the main vessel supplying blood to lower limb. Lingual ligaments divide external iliac artery from femoral artery.

    The initial portion of the artery is located on frontal side of the thigh, on rear lamina of fascia lata, within femoral triangle. It is covered by superficial lamina of fascia lata and is adjacent to femoral nerve laterally and medially to femoral vein. In this location it approximates body surface, what enables the pulse palpation, whilst exerting pressure and depressing it towards illiopubic eminence makes occlusion of its lumen possible.

    Surgical procedure

    Patient is placed in supine position, extensive area covered with surgical drapes enables conversion to other peripheral vessels. Skin incision is usually vertical, less often horizontal or diagonal, parallel to inguinal ligament, directly above femoral artery when pulse is palpable.

    In lack of presence of palpable pulse incision should be slightly medial to mid-section of inguinal ligament. Vertical incision is extended above groin, so 1/3 of the incision is above inguinal ligament and 2/3 below it. After the incision, subcutaneous tissue is exposed, fascia is incised and vascular complex is revealed – femoral artery and vein. After obtaining access to femoral artery (loop, thick suture), assessment of vessel diameter and condition of vessel wall the appropriate catheter size is chosen.

  • 14 - Coagulopathies in Hypothermic Patient

    • By Hubert Hymczak, Severe Hypothermia Treatment Centre, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland, Mirosław Ziętkiewicz, Department of Anaesthesiology and Pulmonary Intensive Care, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland, Dariusz Plicner, The Department of Cardiovascular Surgery and Transplantation, John Paul II Hospital, Cracow, Poland
  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 131-138

  • Summary

    Pathophysiology

    Haemostasis is a group of complex and inter-related processes maintaining integrity of blood vessels both in normal conditions as well as after vessel damage. The role of haemostasis in case of vessel wall damage is formation of clot, followed by fibrinolysis and restoration of normal flow.

    Proper functioning of haemostasis is enabled by plasma components, mainly platelets, blood vessel wall (vascular endothelium), as well as coagulation and fibrinolysis systems. In normal conditions, balance between coagulation and fibrinolysis systems is maintained.

    Coagulation system, particularly in its plasmatic aspect, is a series of enzymatic reactions vitally dependent on temperature and pH. The optimal functioning of the system coincides with physiological body temperature, hence drop in body temperature entails significant disturbances in the process.

    Coagulopathy in hypothermia is a result of decrease in activity number of platelets, reduction in activity of plasma coagulation factors, and enzymatic processes [1–3]. Relationship between drop in blood temperature and occurrence of coagulopathy, however, is not linear. It is accepted that decrease of 1oC of body temperature causes decrease of function of coagulation system by 10%.

    Hypothermia in the range 37–33°C causes mainly platelets adhesion disorders without disturbing significantly neither their activation nor enzymatic activity of plasma factors [1–4]. Furthermore, an increased sensitivity of blood platelets to pro-coagulation factors is observed, what translates into increased capacity to form clots in peripheral parts of the body, more exposed to potential injury [4]. Only in temperature lower than 33°C significant haemostasis disorders are observed, related mainly to reduced activity of thrombocytes and enzymatic activity [1, 2, 5].

    Paradoxically, in chronic hypothermia (with polyuria and dehydration) haemoconcentration with increase of hematocrit by 2% for each °C < 34°C may occur [6, 7], as well as vasoconstriction, release of tissue thromboplastins, and increase in fibrinogen concentration. These may lead to clotting and occurrence of embolism.

  • Introduction

  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 7-8

  • Summary

    In every hypothermia care it is important to have a good organised chain to enhance survival for the patient. In hypothermia accidents chain starts with the first responder knowing the algorithm – No one should be declared dead before being warm and dead.

    This mantra should be spoken out by everyone in the hypothermic chain all the way to hospital. And if someone in the chain is a non believer, the other persons around must rise there voices and say – “the three other golden rules of hypothermia Never give up, never give up, never give up” because these approaches saves lives.

    As victim of hypothermia caught under an ice in a frozen gully for 80 minutes in 1999 I am a living example of how well it can go for a patient if the responders do not give up.

    After about 2 hours and 45 minutes with CPR I arrived with helicopter at the University Hospital of North Norway in Trom; and was rewarmed on ECMO from 13.7 degrees.

    I know there are other patients saved from just as low temperatures and knowing they may be alive because my story has been told over and over again makes me happy.

    That I was a trained doctor when I had the accident and now are able to travel around and tell my story to health personell give meaning to my life.

    I would like all hypothermic victims to get the same chance as I did. Reading this book is a good start organise your hypothermic chain.

  • 7 - Airway Management in Hypothermic Patients

  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 69-74

  • Summary

    Challenges

  • • Severe hypothermia causes grave disorders of respiratory system. Major decrease in body temperature causes disturbance of brain function, depression of respiratory centre in brain stem and impairment of defence reflexes of the airways [1].

  • • Severe stages of hypothermia are associated with increasing stiffness in skeletal muscles, what may cause difficulties in airways management [2]. The rescuer must be ready to face difficulties in tilting the head of the patient, limited degree to which mouth of the patient opens during insertion of oropharyngeal airway (OP), laryngeal mask airway (LMA) or laryngoscopy [3].

  • • Because of low incidence rate of hypothermia it cannot be unequivocally stated that hypothermic patients constitute a group of patients with expected difficulties in intubation, yet such statement may fi nd grounds in pathophysiology of the disorder [2, 4].

  • • Hypothermic patients who are unconscious or in cardiac arrest constitute the group particularly threatened by aspiration of gastric contents. Passive movement of gastric contents to larynx (regurgitation) is a dangerous complication, which may lead both to mechanical obstruction of the airways as well as aspiration (chemical) pneumonitis [3]. In physiological conditions the stomach is emptied within 6 hours. Hypothermia may prolong this process.

  • • Stiffness of skeletal muscles increasing with hypothermia may cause decrease in chest compliance and lead to ventilation disorders. Reduced elasticity of chest walls may favour occurrence of atelectasis, disorders of ventilation/perfusion ratio (V/Q ratio) and pulmonary shunt [2, 5]. Lowered partial pressure of oxygen in blood may result.

  • • Settings where medical care is provided (prehospital setting, emergency ward) and competence of providers are important factors that determine scope of airway management.

    • Procedure

    The goals of medical team dealing with patient in severe hypothermia are provision of adequate oxygenation and ventilation as well as protection from aspiration [3]. Definitive airway protection and implementation of efficient mechanical ventilation may present a major challenge for medical practitioners, particularly in prehospital setting. This is caused by time pressure, circumstances of CPR, varied experience of team members, as well as limited equipment. In such situations, proper and organised functioning of medical team is crucial.

  • 2 - Epidemiology and Estimating Preventable Deaths in Accidental Hypothermia

    • By Agata Smoleń, Chair and Department of Epidemiology and Clinical Research Methodology, Medical University of Lublin, Poland, Halina Piecewicz-Szczęsna, Department of Hygiene and Dietetics, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland, Małgorzata Bała, Systematic Reviews Unit-Polish Cochrane Branch, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 19-32

  • Summary

    Introduction

    Accidental hypothermia is one of major challenges faced by today's medicine.

    Medical professionals dealing with hypothermic patients experience practical difficulties in every phase of treatment of the disorder. Shortage of efficient means of measurement in prehospital phase results in difficulties in diagnosis. Dilemmas concerning qualification to particular rewarming methods follow. Reliable medical data upon which efficacy of medical actions can be estimated is scarce, whilst accepted protocols are based usually on clinical observations or opinions of experts. Many of these issues are caused directly or indirectly by shortage of reliable epidemiological indicators. Without knowing the actual size of the problem we are unable to assign adequate importance to hypothermia nor determine the priorities of planned actions.

    Incidence, mortality and fatality rates

    To assess epidemiological situation, negative population health measures are used, these include: incidence rate, mortality rate and fatality rate.

    Incidence rate, or the risk of occurrence of a disease in a population, states the number of people who are affected by the disease (number of new incidences of the disease) in a given period of observation (e.g. a year) divided by population at risk (100,000 or 10,000 people in a population is often utilised) [1]. Incidence rate is an important measure of health situation of a population. Monitoring of incidence rate enables assessment of changes in different time periods and makes early response to needs possible. It is also a helpful indicator taken into consideration when planning means of treatment and prevention of disease occurrences.

    Number of deaths and population on a given area allow to calculate death-related indicators. Mortality and fatality rates should not be mistaken. Mortality rate is a number of deaths caused by a given disease in a given time period (e.g. a year) divided by population at risk (per 100,000 or 10,000 people in a population) in the studied time period. On the other hand, fatality rate is a ratio of deaths caused by a given disease and sum of all suffering from it (treated and deceased) in an analysed period of observation [1].

  • 1 - Hypothermia as a Disorder

  • Edited by Sylweriusz Kosiński, Tomasz Darocha, Jerzy Sadowski, Rafał Drwiła
  • Book:
    Hypothermia: Clinical Aspects Of Body Cooling
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    03 January 2018
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 9-18

  • Summary

    Incidence and causes

    Effects of cold onto human organism have been described already in the antiquity but hypothermia as a disorder was recognised only in mid- -twentieth century [1]. According to the official sources in the United States hypothermia causes 1,500 deaths yearly, in Poland 300 to 600 deaths are reported per annum. Unfortunately, the exact data concerning incidence and fatality rate are not known. Many cases of hypothermia remain undiagnosed on account of a simple fact: almost all patients have their blood pressure, heart and respiratory rates measured, in many, pain intensity is also evaluated, but temperature measurement is not a part of routine practice. Incidence of clinically important hypothermia (excluding traumatic hypothermia cases) among patients admitted to emergency wards in Poland is estimated to be 5–6 cases per 100,000 citizens per year [2].

    Although hypothermia is commonly understood to be characteristic of cold climates, it is worth noting that it can develop any place on Earth any time of year. It is beyond doubt that cold environment and major heat loss are factors most predisposing to hypothermia. If the impact of low temperature is significant and properly functioning body heat retention mechanisms fail, we speak of primary hypothermia. Hypothermia however can develop as a secondary condition accompanying other disabilities and homeostasis impairments deteriorating thermal regulation [3, 4]. In both cases the underlying principle is a simple disproportion between heat generation and heat loss.

    Thermoregulation

    Human organism is homeothermic, i.e. it possesses the ability to maintain stable core temperature regardless of external conditions. In fact, homeothermy undergoes more profound and more precise autonomic regulation than circulatory homeostasis. In certain circumstances, when defensive mechanisms of the organism fail, heat loss becomes superior to heat generation and body temperature decreases. At this moment a cascade of organs and systems dysfunctions occurs, leading to death unless therapy is commenced.

    Human organism disperses heat by means of three processes: conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation.

  • Classifying and cataloguing

  • from PART THREE - THE QUESTION OF GENRE
  • Katarzyna Bazarnik
  • Book:
    Liberature: A Book-bound Genre
    Published by:
    Jagiellonian University Press
    Published online:
    22 December 2017
    Print publication:
    01 December 2016, pp 157-164

  • Summary

    Patching the system

    Finally, I want to return briefly to the classificatory function of genre to show how liberature may be of use. Swales claims that the classificatory value of genre “lies in [genre's] use as a research tool for categorizing and filing individual texts, that is, as an effective storage and retrieval system” (1990: 34). It is an aspect evident to librarians and information managers who treat classification as a complex analytical operation (which incidentally again suggests that genre is also a tool for interpretation). In order to be classified, a text must first be analysed with a view to identifying the features that are responsible for its specificity, and consequently for its generic setup. If it does not quite fit with any already existing category, two options are available: the category that comes closest can be modified so as to account for the outlying work, or a new category can be postulated that modifies or fills a gap in the existing classification system. Once the adjusted or new category is accepted by a community of users, it facilitates the retrieval of specific data involved in a given class of texts. It is worth mentioning that since 2007 the Library of Congress has been developing a system of genre/form headings motivated precisely by the important analytical potential of this type of metadata, especially with regard to computerised data mining and user interfaces (Young 2009). As Janis Young, a senior cataloging specialist at the Library of Congress, explains, subject headings tend to conflate the distinction between “what the item is about,” and how its content is expressed. In other words, a book about poems is not the same as a book of poems, but both types of publication would be catalogued under the same subject heading. Hence, genre seems to be a handy category which would let cataloguers and database users distinguish between such publications, that is between their content and form, and thus enable more efficient searches (Young 2009). So again it becomes evident that generic classification does not only serve to pigeonhole for pigeonholing's sake, but that it is helpful for a nuanced analysis of the complex of information encoded in a text.

Page 51 of 154