Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-r6qrq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T15:37:39.451Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

4 - Impacts of large herbivores on plant community structure and dynamics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 November 2009

By
Alison J. Hester ,
Margareta Bergman ,
Glenn R. Iason  and
Jon Moen
Edited by
Kjell Danell ,
Roger Bergström ,
Patrick Duncan  and
John Pastor
Alison J. Hester
Affiliation:
Macaulay Institute
Margareta Bergman
Affiliation:
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Glenn R. Iason
Affiliation:
Macaulay Institute
Jon Moen
Affiliation:
Umeå University
Kjell Danell
Affiliation:
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Roger Bergström
Affiliation:
The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden
Patrick Duncan
Affiliation:
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris
John Pastor
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota, Duluth
Get access

Summary

INTRODUCTION

How do large herbivores affect plant community structure and dynamics? Here we review the main direct impacts of herbivores on plant communities. We briefly review effects on individual plants (or ramets) and the range of responses of individual plants to herbivory, as a basis from which to explore the complexities of processes operating at the plant community level. Large herbivores make foraging decisions at a range of spatial (from bite to landscape) and temporal (from seconds to years) scales, and plants also respond to herbivore impacts at a similar ranges of scales (plant part to community) (Bailey et al. 1996, Hodgson & Illius 1996, Crawley 1997). This provides a challenge for the identification of key processes affecting plant‐herbivore interactions and the mechanisms driving plant community responses to herbivore damage under different conditions. Scale issues (both temporal and spatial) are paramount to the study of herbivore impacts on plant community dynamics (Crawley 1997, Olff & Ritchie 1998), and scale is implicitly or explicitly brought into many of the sections in this review. Scale issues can also underlie apparent controversies in the literature about herbivore influences on vegetation, and an awareness of their implications is fundamental.

The impacts of large herbivores on vegetation have been particularly widely studied in relation to range management and pasture plants, primarily grasses (Rosenthal & Kotanen 1994, Hodgson & Illius 1996, Crawley 1997, Olff & Ritchie 1998). In this chapter, we focus on shrub and woodland systems where possible to complement earlier reviews.

Type
Chapter
Information
Large Herbivore Ecology, Ecosystem Dynamics and Conservation , pp. 97 - 141
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adler, P. B., Raff, D. A. & Lauenroth, W. K. (2001). The effect of grazing on the spatial heterogeneity of vegetation. Oecologia, 128, 465–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agrawal, A. A. (2000). Overcompensation of plants in response to herbivory and the by‐product benefits of mutualism. Trends in Plant Science, 5, 309–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, S. (1996). Assessing and interpreting grass‐woody plant dynamics. In The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems, ed. Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W.. Wallingford: CAB International, pp. 101–36.Google Scholar
Augustine, D. J. & Frank, D. A. (2001). Effects of migratory grazers on spatial heterogeneity of soil nitrogen properties in a grassland ecosystem. Ecology, 82, 3149–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Augustine, D. J. & McNaughton, S. J. (1998). Ungulate effects on the functional species composition of plant communities: herbivore selectivity and plant tolerance. Journal of Wildlife Management, 62, 1165–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austin, P. J., Suchar, L. A., Robbins, C. T. & Hagerman, A. E. (1989). Tannin‐binding proteins in saliva of deer and their absence in saliva of sheep and cattle. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 15, 1335–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Austrheim, G. & Eriksson, O. (2001). Plant species diversity and grazing in the Scandinavian mountains – patterns and processes at different spatial scales. Ecography, 24, 683–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, D. W., Gross, J. E., Laca, E. A.et al. (1996). Mechanisms that result in large herbivore grazing distribution patterns. Journal of Range Management, 49, 386–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, J. P. (1989). Nature Management by Grazing and Cutting. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bakker, J. P., Leeuw, J. & Wieren, S. E. (1984). Micro‐patterns in grassland vegetation created and sustained by sheep grazing. Vegetatio, 55, 153–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Begon, M., Harper, J. L. & Townsend, C. R. (1990). Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities, 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Belsky, A. J. (1986). Does herbivory benefit plants? A review of the evidence. American Naturalist, 127, 870–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, A. J., Carson, W. P., Jensen, C. L. & Fox, G. A. (1993). Overcompensation by plants: herbivore optimisation or red herring?Evolutionary Ecology, 7, 109–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergelson, J. & Crawley, M. J. (1992a). The effects of grazers on the performance of individuals and populations of scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata. Oecologia, 90, 435–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergelson, J. & Crawley, M. J. (1992b). Herbivory and Ipomopsis aggregata: the disadvantages of being eaten. American Naturalist, 139, 870–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergelson, J., Juenger, T. & Crawley, M. J. (1996). Regrowth following herbivory in Ipomopsis aggregata: compensation but not overcompensation. American Naturalist, 148, 744–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, M. (2002). Can saliva from moose, Alces alces, affect growth responses in the sallow, Salix caprea?Oikos, 96, 164–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, M., Edenius, L. & Danell, K. (2001). The effect of browsing on Sorbus aucuparia in high‐ and low‐resource environments. In Ungulate Effects on Their Food Plants: Responses Depending on Scale. M. Bergman Ph.D Thesis, Department of Animal Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå.
Bergman, M., Iason, G. R. & Hester, A. J. (2005). Feeding patterns by roe deer and rabbits on pine, willow and birch in relation to spatial arrangement. Oikos, 109, 513–20.CrossRef
Bergqvist, G., Bergström, R. & Edenius, L. (2003). Effects of moose (Alces alces) rebrowsing on damage development in young stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). Forest Ecology and Management, 176, 397–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergström, R. & Danell, K. (1987). Effects of simulated browsing by moose on morphology and biomass of two birch species. Journal of Ecology, 75, 533–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bidlack, W. R., Brown, R. C. & Mohan, C. (1986). Nutritional parameters that alter hepatic drug metabolism, conjugation and toxicitiy. Federation Proceedings, 45, 142–8.Google Scholar
Bokdam, J. (2001). Effects of browsing and grazing on cyclic succession in nutrient‐limited ecosystems. Journal of Vegetation Science, 12, 875–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonsall, M. B. & Hassell, M. P. (1997). Apparent competition structures ecological assemblages. Nature, 388, 371–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradshaw, A. D. (1965). Evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity in plants. Advances in Genetics, 13, 115–55.Google Scholar
Briske, D. D. (1996). Strategies of plant survival in grazed systems: a functional interpretation. In The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems, ed. Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W.. Wallingford: CAB International, pp. 37–68.Google Scholar
Brockway, D. G., Gatewood, R. G. & Paris, R. B. (2002). Restoring grassland savannas from degraded pinyon‐juniper woodlands: effects of mechanical overstory reduction and slash treatment alternatives. Journal of Environmental Management, 64, 179–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, J. P. (2003). Winter browsing on Alaska feltleaf willow twigs improves leaf nutritional value for snowshoe hares in summer. Oikos, 102, 25–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J. P., Chapin, F. S., III. & Klein, D. R. (1983). Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos, 40, 357–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J. P., Clausen, T. & Kuropat, P. (1985). Interactions of snowshoe hare and feltleaf willow in Alaska. Ecology, 66, 1564–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J. P., Danell, K., Provenza, F. D. et al. (1991a). Effects of mammal browsing on the chemistry of deciduous woody plants. In Phytochemical Induction by Herbivores, ed. Tallamy, D. & Raupp, M. J.. New York: Wiley, pp. 135–54.Google Scholar
Bryant, J. P., Provenza, F. D., Pastor, J.et al. (1991b). Interactions between woody plants and browsing animals mediated by secondary metabolites. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 22, 431–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, J. P., Reichardt, P. B., Clausen., T. P., Provenza F. D. & Kuropat, P. J. (1991c). Woody plant‐mammal interactions. In Herbivores: Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites. Vol II. Ecological and Evolutionary Processes, ed. Rosenthal, G. A. & Berenbaum, M. R.. San Diego, California: Academic Press, pp. 344–71.Google Scholar
Bullock, J. M. (1996). Plant competition and population dynamics. In The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems, ed. Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W.Wallingford: CAB International, pp. 69–100.Google Scholar
Bullock, J. M., Clear Hill, B. & Silvertown, J. (1994a). Demography of Cirsium vulgare in a grazing experiment. Journal of Ecology, 82, 101–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, J. M., Clear Hill, B., Dale, M. P. & Silvertown, J. (1994b). An experimental study of vegetation change due to grazing in a species‐poor grassland and the role of the seed bank. Journal of Applied Ecology, 31, 737–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, J. M., Franklin, J., Stevenson, M. J.et al. (2001). A plant trait analysis of responses to grazing in a long‐term experiment. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38, 253–67.Google Scholar
Cadenasso, M. L., Pickett, S. T. A. & Morin, P. J. (2002). Experimental test of the role of mammalian herbivores on old field succession: community structure and seedling survival. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, 129, 228–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capinera, J. L. & Roltsch, W. J. (1980). Response of wheat seedlings to actual and simulated migratory grasshopper defoliation. Journal of Economic Entomology, 73, 258–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapin, F. S., Bryant, J. P. & Fox, J. F. (1985). Lack of induced chemical defence in juvenile Alaskan woody plants in response to simulated browsing. Oecologia, 67, 457–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapin, F. S. Schultze, E. D. & Mooney, H. A. (1990). The ecology and economics of storage in plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 21, 423–47.CrossRef
Chapman, D. F. & Lemaire, G. (1993). Morphogenetic and structural determinants of plant regrowth after defoliation. In Grasslands for our World, ed. Baker, M. J.. Proceedings of the XVII International Grassland Congress. Wellington: SIR publishing, pp. 95–104.Google Scholar
Charles, W. N. (1961). Differential survival of cultivars of Lolium, Dactylis and Phleum. Journal of the British Grassland Society, 16, 69–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chase, J. M., Leibold, M. A. & Simms, E. (2000). Plant tolerance and resistance in food webs: community‐level predictions and evolutionary implications. Evolutionary Ecology, 14, 289–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chesson, P. & Huntly, N. (1989). Short‐term instabilities and long‐term community dynamics. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 4, 293–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cid, M. S., Detling, J. K., Whicker, A. D. & Brizuela, M. A. (1991). Vegetational responses of a mixed‐grass prairie site following exclusion of prairie dogs and bison. Journal of Range Management, 44, 100–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cipollini, D. & Sipe, M. (2001). Jasmonic acid treatment and mammalian herbivory differentially affect chemical defence expression and growth of Brassica kaber. Chemoecology, 11, 137–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cipollini, D., Purringnton, C. B. & Bergelson, J. (2003). Costs of induced responses in plants. Basic and Applied Ecology, 4, 79–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coley, P. D., Bryant, J. P. & Chapin, F. S. (1985). Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science, 230, 895–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawley, M. J. (1983). Herbivory. The Dynamics of Animal‐Plant Interactions. Studies in Ecology Volume 10. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Crawley, M. J. (1988). Herbivores and plant population dynamics. In Plant Population Ecology, ed. Davy, A. J., Hutchings, M. J. & Watkinson, A. R.. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp. 367–92.Google Scholar
Crawley, M. J. (ed.) (1997). Plant Ecology, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell Science.Google Scholar
Danell, K. & Huss‐Danell, K. (1985). Feeding by insects and hares on birches earlier affected by moose browsing. Oikos, 44, 75–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danell, K., Huss‐Danell, K. & Bergström, R. (1985). Interactions between browsing moose and two species of birch in Sweden. Ecology, 66, 1867–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danell, K., Bergström, R., Edenius, L. & Ericsson, G. (2003). Ungulates as drivers of tree population dynamics at module and genet levels. Forest Ecology and Management, 181, 67–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deregibus, V. A., Sanches, R. A., Casal, J. J. & Trlica, M. J. (1985). Tillering responses to enrichment of red light beneath the canopy in a humid natural grassland. Journal of Applied Ecology, 22, 199–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detling, J. K., Ross, C. W., Walmsley, M. H.et al. (1981). Examination of North American bison saliva for potential growth regulators. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 7, 239–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diaz, S., Noy‐Meir, I. & Cabido, M. (2001). Can grazing response of herbaceous plants be predicted from simple vegetative traits?Journal of Applied Ecology, 38, 497–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dicke, M., Poecke, M. P. & Boer, J. (2003). Inducible indirect defense of plants: from mechanisms to ecological functions. Basic and Applied Ecology, 4, 27–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dlott, F. & Turkington, R. (2000). Regulation of boreal forest understory vegetation: the roles of resources and herbivores. Plant Ecology, 154, 239–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dormann, C. F. & Bakker, J. P. (1999). The impact of herbivory and competition on flowering and survival during saltmarsh succession. Plant Biology, 2, 68–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drent, R. H. & van der Wal, R. (1999). Cyclic grazing in vertebrates and the manipulation of the food resource. In Herbivores: Between Plants and Predators, ed. Olff, H., Brown, V. K., Drent, R. H.. Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 271–99.Google Scholar
Edwards, P. J., Wratten, S. D. & Gibberd, R. M. (1991). The impact of inducible phytochemicals on food selection by insect herbivores and its consequences for the distribution of grazing damage. In Phytochemical Induction by Herbivores, ed. Tallamy, D. & Raupp, M. J.. New York: Wiley, pp. 205–22.Google Scholar
Ellis, J. E. & Swift, D. M. (1988). Stability of African pastoral systems: alternate paradigms and implications for development. Journal of Range Management, 41, 450–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fahnestock, J. T. & Detling, J. K. (2002). Bison‐prairie dog‐plant interactions in a North American mixed‐grass prairie. Oecologia, 132, 86–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeney, P. (1976). Plant apparency and chemical defence. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, 10, 1–40.Google Scholar
Feeney, P. (1991). The evolution of chemical ecology: contributions from the study of herbivorous insects. In Herbivores: Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites. Vol II. Ecological and Evolutionary Processes, ed. Rosenthal, G. A. & Berenbaum, M. R.. San Diego, California: Academic Press, pp. 1–44.Google Scholar
Foley, W. J., Iason, G. R. & MacArthur, C. (1999). Role of plant secondary metabolites in the nutritional ecology of mammalian herbivores. How far have we come in 25 years? In Nutritional Ecology of Herbivores, ed. Jung, H. J. G. & Fahey, G. C.. Savoy, IL: American Society of Animal Science, pp. 130–209.Google Scholar
Fox, J. F. & Bryant, J. P. (1984). Instability of the snowshoe hare and woody plant interaction. Oecologia, 64, 128–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraenkel, G. S. (1959). The raison d'etre of secondary plant substances. Science, 129, 1466–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fritz, R. S. & Simms, E. L. (eds.) (1992). Plant Resistance to Herbivores and Pathogens: Ecology, Evolution and Genetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehring, C. A. & Whitham, T. G. (1994). Interactions between aboveground herbivores and the mycorrhizal mutualists of plants. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 251–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, R. M. A. (1992a). A review of damage by mammals in north temperate forests. 1. Deer. Forestry, 65, 145–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gill, R. M. A. (1992b). A review of damage by mammals in north temperate forests. 3. Impact on trees and forests. Forestry, 65, 363–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gimingham, C. H. (1972). Ecology of Heathlands. London: Chapman & Hall.Google Scholar
Gough, L. & Grace, J. B. (1998). Herbivore effects on plant species density at varying productivity levels. Ecology, 79, 1586–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grace, J. B. & Tilman, D. (eds.) (1990). Perspectives on Plant Competition. San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Grant, S. A., Barthram, G. T., Lamb, W. I. C. & Milne, J. A. (1978). Effects of season and level of grazing on the utilization of heather by sheep. 1. Responses of the sward. Journal of British Grassland Society, 33, 289–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grant, S. A., Milne, J. A., Barthram, G. T. & Souter, W. G. (1982). Efects of season and level of grazing on the utilization of heather by sheep. III. Longer‐term responses and sward recovery. Grass and Forage Science, 37, 311–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray, A. J., Crawley, M. J. & Edwards, P. J. (eds.) (1986). Colonisation, Succession and Stability. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Grime, J. P. (1973). Competitive exclusion in herbaceous vegetation. Nature, 242, 344–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grime, J. P. (1979). Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Grubb, P. J. (1976). The maintenance of species richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews, 52, 107–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambäck, P. A. & Beckerman, A. P. (2003). Herbivory and plant resource competition: a review of two interacting interactions. Oikos, 101, 26–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambäck, P. A. & Ekerholm, P. (1997). Mechanisms of apparent competition in seasonal environments: an example with vole herbivory. Oikos, 80, 276–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, J. G., Zangerl, A. R., DeLucia, E. H. & Berenbaum, M. R. (2001). The carbon‐nutrient balance hypothesis: its rise and fall. Ecology Letters, 4, 86–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harper, J. L. (1977). Population Biology of Plants. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hart, R. H. (2001). Plant biodiversity on shortgrass steppe after 55 years of zero, light, moderate or heavy cattle grazing. Plant Ecology, 155, 111–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartvigsen, G. & McNaughton, S. J. (1995). Trade‐off between height and relative growth rate in a dominant grass from the Serengeti ecosystem. Oecologia, 102, 273–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haukioja, E. & Koricheva, J. (2000). Tolerance to herbivory in woody vs. herbaceous plants. Evolutionary Ecology, 14, 551–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkes, C. V. & Sullivan, J. J. (2001). The impact of herbivory on plants in different resource conditions. A meta‐analysis. Ecology, 82, 2045–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haynes, R. J. & Williams, P. H. (1993). Nutrient cycling and soil fertility in the grazed pasture ecosystem. Advances in Agronomy, 49, 119–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heikkilä, R. & Mikkonen, T. (1992). Effects of density of young scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stand on moose (Alces alces) browsing. Acta Forestalia Fennica, 231, 3–14.Google Scholar
Herms, D. A. & Mattson, W. J. (1992). The dilemma of plants: to grow or defend. Quarterly Review of Biology, 67, 283–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J. & Baillie, G. J. (1998). Spatial and temporal patterns of heather use by sheep and red deer within natural heather/grass mosaics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, 772–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Gimingham, C. H. & Miles, J. (1991a). Succession from heather moorland to birch woodland. III. Seed availability, germination and early growth. Journal of Ecology, 79, 329–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Miles, J. & Gimingham, C. H. (1991b). Succession from heather moorland to birch woodland. I. Experimental alteration of specific environmental conditions in the field. Journal of Ecology, 79, 303–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Mitchell, F. J. G. & Kirby, K. J. (1996). Effects of season and intensity of sheep grazing on tree regeneration in a British upland woodland. Forest Ecology and Management, 88, 99–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Gordon, I. J., Baillie, G. J. & Tappin, E. (1999). Foraging behaviour of sheep and red deer within natural heather/grass mosaics. Journal of Applied Ecology, 36, 133–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Edenius, L., Buttenshøn, R. M. & Kuiters, A. T. (2000a). Interactions between forests and herbivores: the role of controlled grazing experiments. Forestry, 73, 381–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Stewart, F. E., Racey, P. A. & Swaine, M. D. (2000b). Can gap creation by red deer enhance the establishment of birch (Betula pubescens)?Scottish Forestry, 54, 143–51.Google Scholar
Hester, A. J., Millard, P., Baillie, G. J. & Wendler, R. (2004). How does timing of browsing affect above‐ and below‐ground growth of Betula pendula, Pinus sylvestris and Sorbus aucuparia?Oikos, 105, 536–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hester, A. J., Lempa, K. & Neuvonen, S. et al. (2005). Birch sapling responses to severity and timing of domestic herbivore browsing – implications for management. In Plant Ecology, Herbivory and Human Impacts in Nordic Mountain Birch Forests, ed. Wielgolaski, F. E.. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, pp. 139–55.Google Scholar
Hill, M. O., Evans, D. F. & Bell, S. A. (1992). Long term effects of excluding sheep from hill pastures in north Wales. Journal of Ecology, 80, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjältén, J. & Palo, R. T. (1992). Selection of deciduous trees by free‐ranging voles and hares in relation to plant chemistry. Oikos, 63, 477–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hjältén, J., Danell, K. & Lundberg, P. (1993). Herbivore avoidance by association – vole and hare utilization of woody‐plants. Oikos, 68, 125–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, N. T. (1996). Modification of ecosystems by ungulates. Journal of Wildlife Management, 60, 695–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobbs, N. T. (1999). Responses of larger herbivores to spatial heterogeneity in ecosystems. In Nutritional Ecology of Herbivores, ed. Jung, H. G. & Fahey, G. C.. Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on the Nutrition of Herbivores. Savory, Illinois: American Society of Animal Science, pp. 97–129.Google Scholar
Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W. (eds). (1996). The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems. Wallingford: CAB International.Google Scholar
Holland, E. A. & Detling, J. K. (1990). Plant response to herbivory and below‐ground nitrogen cycling. Ecology, 71, 1040–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holling, C. S. (1992). Cross‐scale morphology, geometry and dynamics of ecosystems. Ecological Monographs, 62, 447–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holt, R. D. (1977). Predation, apparent competition, and the structure of prey communities. Theoretical Population Biology, 12, 197–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, R. D. & Lawton, J. H. (1994). The ecological consequences of shared natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 25, 495–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honkanen, T., Haukioja, E. & Kitunen, V. (1999). Responses of Pinus sylvestris branches to simulated herbivory are modified by tree sink/source dynamics and by external resources. Functional Ecology, 13, 126–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntly, N. J. (1991). Herbivores and the dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 22, 477–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Husheer, S. W., Coomes, D. A. & Robertson, A. W. (2003). Long‐term influences of introduced deer on the composition and structure of New Zealand Nothofagus forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 181, 99–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchings, M. J. (1997). The structure of plant populations. In Plant Ecology, 2nd edn, ed. Crawley, M. J.. Oxford: Blackwell Science, pp. 325–58.Google Scholar
Iason G. R & Van Wieren S. E. (1999). Digestive and ingestive adaptations of mammalian herbivores to low quality forage. In Herbivores: Between Plants and Predators, ed. Olff, H., Brown, V. K. & Drent, R. H.. 38th Symposium of the British Ecological Society. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp. 337–69.Google Scholar
Illius, A. W. & O'Connor, T. G. (1999). On the relevance of nonequilibrium concepts to arid and semi‐arid grazing systems. Ecological Applications, 9, 798–813.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaindl, R. G., Doescher, P., Miller, R. F. & Eddleman, L. E. (1994). Persistence of idaho fescue on degraded rangelands – adaptation to defoliation or tolerance. Journal of Range Management, 47, 54–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jefferies, R. L., Klein, D. R. & Shaver, G. R. (1994). Vertebrate herbivores and northern plant communities – reciprocal influences and response. Oikos, 71, 193–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juenger, T. & Bergelson, J. (1997). Pollen and resource limitation of compensation to herbivory in scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata. Ecology, 78, 1684–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juenger, T. & Bergelson, J. (2000). The evolution of compensation to herbivory in scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata: herbivore‐imposed natural selection and the quantitative genetics of tolerance. Evolution, 54, 764–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Juntheikki, M. R. (1996). Comparison of tannin‐binding proteins in saliva of Scandinavian and North American moose (Alces alces). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 24, 595–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karban, R. & Baldwin, I. T. (1997). Induced Responses to Herbivory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karban, R., Agrawal, A. A., Thaler, J. S & Adler, L. S. (1999). Induced plant responses and information content about risk of herbivory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14, 443–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirby, K. J. (2003). What might a British forest‐landscape driven by large herbivores look like?English Nature Research Reports, 530, 1–51.Google Scholar
Koricheva, J. (2002). The carbon‐nutrient balance hypothesis is dead; long live the carbon‐nutrient balance hypothesis?Oikos, 98, 537–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koricheva, J., Larsson, S., Haukioja, E. & Keinanen, M. (1998). Regulation of woody plant secondary metabolism by resource availability: hypothesis testing by means of meta‐analysis. Oikos, 83, 212–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotanen, P. M. & Rosenthal, J. P. (2000). Tolerating herbivory: does the plant care if the herbivore has a backbone?Evolutionary Ecology, 14, 537–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kozlowski, T. T. (1971). Growth and Development of Trees, vol. 1. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Langer, R. H. M. (1956). Growth and nutrition of timothy (Phleum pratense). I. The life‐history of individual tillers. Annals of Applied Biology, 44, 166–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laws, R. M., Parker, I. S. C. & Johnstone, R. C. B. (1975). Elephants and their Habitat. Oxford: Clarenden Press.Google Scholar
Ledig, F. T. (1992). Human impacts on genetic diversity in forest ecosystems. Oikos, 63, 87–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemaire, G. & Chapman, D. (1996). Tissue flows in grazed plant communities. In The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems, ed. Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W.. Wallingford: CAB International, pp. 3–36.Google Scholar
Lerdau, M. & Coley, P. D. (2002). Benefits of the carbon‐nutrient balance hypothesis. Oikos, 98, 534–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindroth, R. L., Osier, T. L., Barnhill, H. R. H. & Wood, S. A. (2002). Effects of genotype and nutrient availability on phytochemistry of trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) during leaf senescence. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 30, 297–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Louda, S. M., Keeler, K. H. & Holt, R. D. (1990). Herbivore influences on plant performance and competitive interactions. In Perspectives on Plant Competition, ed. Grace, J. B. & Tilman, D.. New York: Academic Press, pp. 413–44.Google Scholar
Löyttyniemi, K. (1985). On repeated browsing of Scots pine saplings by moose (Alces alces). Silva Fennica, 19, 387–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArthur, C., Robbins, C. T., Hagerman, A. E. & Hanley, T. A. (1993). Diet selection by a ruminant generalist browser in relation to plant chemistry. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 71, 2236–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacLennan, A. S. (1979). Soil Erosion in Strathconon, Central Ross, with Special Reference to the Effects of Animal Grazing and Trampling. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, UK.Google Scholar
McNaughton, S. J. (1978). Serengeti ungulates; feeding selectivity influences the effectiveness of plant defense guilds. Science, 199, 806–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNaughton, S. J. (1979a). Grazing as an optimization process: grass‐ungulate relationships in the Serengeti. American Naturalist, 113, 691–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNaughton, S. J. (1979b). Grassland‐herbivore dynamics. In Serengeti: Dynamics of an Ecosystem, ed. Sinclair, A. R. E. & Northon‐Griffiths, M.. Chicago: Chicago University Press. pp. 46–81.Google Scholar
McNaughton, S. J. (1983). Compensatory growth as a response to herbivory. Oikos, 40, 329–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McNaughton, S. J.Banyikwa, F. F. & McNaughton, M. M. (1998). Root biomass and productivity in a grazing ecosystem: the Serengeti. Ecology, 79, 587–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meikle, A., Paterson, S., Finch, R. P., Marshall, G. & Waterhouse, A. (1999). Genetic characterisation of heather (Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull) subject to different management regimes across Great Britain. Molecular Ecology, 8, 2037–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Messina, F. J., Durham, S. L., Richards, J. H. & McArthur, E. D. (2002). Trade‐offs between plant growth and defense? A comparison of sagebrush populations. Oecologia 131, 43–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, G. A. & Root, R. B. (1993). Effects of herbivorous insects and soil fertility on reproduction of goldenrod. Ecology, 74, 1117–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milchunas, D. G. & Noy‐Meir, I. (2002). Grazing refuges, external avoidance of herbivory and plant diversity. Oikos, 99, 113–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milchunas, D. G., Lauenroth, W. K. & Chapman, P. L. (1992). Plant competition, abiotic, and long term and short term effects of large herbivores on demography of opportunistic species in a semi‐arid grassland. Oecologia, 92, 520–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milchunas, D. G., Lauenroth, W. K. & Burke, I. C. (1998). Livestock grazing: animal and plant biodiversity of shortgrass steppe and the relationship to ecosystem function. Oikos, 83, 65–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milewski, A. V., Young, T. P. & Madden, D. (1991). Thorns as induced defences: experimental evidence. Oecologia, 86, 70–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, J. (1973). Natural recolonisation of experimentally bared soil in Callunetum in north‐east Scotland. Journal of Ecology, 61, 399–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, J. (1979). Vegetation Dynamics. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, J. (1985). The pedogenic effects of different species and vegetation types and the implications of succession. Journal of Soil Science, 36, 571–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, J. (1988). Vegetation and soil change in the uplands. In Ecological Change in the Uplands, ed. Usher, M. B. & Thompson, D. B. A.. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp. 57–70.Google Scholar
Miles, J. & Kinnaird, J. W. (1979). The establishment and regeneration of birch, juniper and Scots pine in the Scottish Highlands. Scottish Forestry, 33, 102–19.Google Scholar
Millard, P., Hester, A. J., Wendler, R. & Baillie, G. (2001). Remobilization of nitrogen and the recovery of Betula pendula, Pinus sylvestris, and Sorbus aucuparia saplings after simulated browsing damage. Functional Ecology, 15, 535–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. R., Kinnaird, J. W. & Cummins, R. P. (1982). Liability of saplings to browsing on a red deer range in the Scottish Highlands. Journal of Applied Ecology, 19, 941–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milne, J. A., Birch, C. P. D., Hester, A. J., Armstrong, H. & Robertson, A. (1998). The impact of vertebrate herbivores on the natural heritage of the Scottish uplands – a review. Scottish Natural Heritage Reviews, (SNH, Edinburgh) 95, 1–127.Google Scholar
Mitlacher, K., Poschlod, P., Rosen, E. & Bakker, J. P. (2002). Restoration of wooded meadows – a comparative analysis along a chronosequence on Oland (Sweden). Applied Vegetation Science, 5, 63–73.Google Scholar
Mole, S., Butler, L. G. & Iason, G. R. (1990). Defense against dietary tannin in herbivores: a survey for proline rich salivary proteins in mammals. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 18, 287–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moorby, J. & Waring, P. F. (1963). Aging in woody plants. Annals of Botany, 27, 291–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, J. H. & Bazeley, D. (1991). Thorns, spines, prickles and hairs: are they stimulated by herbivory and do they deter herbivores? In Phytochemical Induction by Herbivores, ed. Tallamy, D. J. & Raupp, M. J.. New York: Academic Press, pp. 326–43.Google Scholar
Nitao, J. K., Zangerl, A. R., Berenbaum, M. R., Hamilton, J. G. & DeLucia, E. H. (2002). CNB: requiescat in pace?Oikos, 98, 540–546.Google Scholar
Oba, G., Vetaas, O. R. & Stenseth, N. C. (2001). Relationships between biomass and plant species richness in arid‐zone grazing lands. Journal of Applied Ecology, 38, 836–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olff, H. & Ritchie, M. E. (1998). Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 261–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olff, H., Vera, F. W. M., Bokdam, J.et al. (1999). Shifting mosaics in grazed woodlands driven by the alternation of plant facilitation and competition. Plant Biology, 1, 127–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olff, H., Ritchie, M. E. & Prinz, H. H. T. (2002). Global environmental controls of diversity in large herbivores. Nature, 415, 901–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olofsson, J., Moen, J. & Oksanen, L. (2002). Effects of herbivory on competition intensity in two arctic‐alpine tundra communities with different productivity. Oikos, 96, 265–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oom, S. (2002). Spatial Pattern and Process in Fragmenting Heather Moorland. Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, UK.Google Scholar
Oom, S. & Hester, A. J. (1999). Heather utilization along paths by red deer and sheep in a natural heather/grass mosaic. Botanical Journal of Scotland, 51, 23–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oom, S. P., Hester, A. J., Elston, D. A. & Legg, C. J. (2002). Spatial interaction models: from human geography to plant‐herbivore interactions. Oikos, 98, 65–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pacala, S. W. & Crawley, M. J. (1992). Herbivores and plant diversity. American Naturalist, 140, 243–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paige, K. N. (1992). The effects of fire on scarlet gilia: an alternative selection pressure to herbivory?Oecologia, 92, 229–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paige, K. N. (1994). Herbivory and Ipomopsis aggregata: differences in response, differences in experimental protocol: a reply to Bergelson and Crawley. American Naturalist, 143, 739–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paige, K. N. (1999). Regrowth following ungulate herbivory in Ipomopsis aggregata: geographic evidence for overcompensation. Oecologia, 118, 316–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paige, K. N. & Whitham, T. G. (1987). Overcompensation in response to mammalian herbivory: the advantage of being eaten. American Naturalist, 129, 407–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paige, K. N., Williams, B. & Hickox, T. (2001). Overcompensation through the paternal component of fitness in Ipomopsis arizonica. Oecologia, 128, 72–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pakeman, R. J., Attwood, J. P. & Engelen, J. (1998). Sources of plants colonising experimentally disturbed patches in an acidic grassland, in eastern England. Journal of Ecology, 86, 1032–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pakeman, J. P., Digneffe, G. & Small, J. L. (2002). Ecological correlates of endozoochory by herbivores. Functional Ecology, 16, 296–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, S. C. F. (1997). Prediction of the shoot production of heather under grazing in the uplands of Great Britain. Grass and Forage Science, 52, 408–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, S. C. F., Hester, A. J., Elston, D., Gordon, I. J. & Hartley, S. E. (2003). The perils of having tasty neighbours. Ecology, 84, 2877–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palo, R. T. & Robbins, C. T. (eds.) (1991). Plant Defenses Against Mammalian Herbivory. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Inc.Google Scholar
Pass, D. M., Foley, W. J. & Bowden, B. (1998). Vertebrate herbivory on Eucalyptus – Identification of specific feeding deterrents for common ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) by bioassay‐guided fractionation of Eucalyptus ovata foliage. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 24, 1513–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pastor, J. & Naiman, R. J. (1992). Selective foraging and ecosystem processes in boreal forests. American Naturalist, 139, 690–705.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pamo, E. T. & Chamba, M. N. (2001). Elephants and vegetation change in the Sahelo‐Soudanian region of Cameroon. Journal of Arid Environments, 48, 243–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Persson, I.‐L.Danell, K. & Bergström, R. (2000). Disturbance by large herbivores in boreal forests with special reference to moose. Annales Zoologici Fennici, 37, 251–63.Google Scholar
Pickup, G., Bastin, G. N. & Chewings, V. H. (1998). Identifying trends in land degradation in non‐equilibrium rangelands. Journal of Applied Ecology, 35, 365–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pigott, C. D. (1985). Selective damage to tree‐seedlings by bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). Oecologia, 67, 367–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Price, P. W. (1991). The plant vigour hypothesis and herbivore attack. Oikos, 62, 244–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prieur‐Richard, A. H., Lavorel, S., Linhart, Y. B. & Dos Santos, A. (2002). Plant diversity, herbivory and resistance of a plant community to invasion in Mediterranean annual communities. Oecologia, 130, 96–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proulx, M. & Mazumder, A. (1998). Reversal of grazing impact on plant species richness in nutrient‐poor vs. nutrient‐rich ecosystems. Ecology, 79, 2581–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raupp, M. J. & Sadof, C. S. (1991). Responses of leaf beetles to injury‐related changes in their salicaceous hosts. In Phytochemical Induction by Herbivores, ed. Tallamy, D. & Raupp, M. J.. New York: Wiley, pp. 183–204.Google Scholar
Raven, P. H., Evert, R.F. & Eichhorn, S. E. (1992). Biology of Plants. New York: Worth Publishers.Google Scholar
Reardon, P. O., Leinweber, C. L. & Merrill, L. B. (1974). Response of Sideoats grama to animal saliva and thiamine and bovine saliva. Journal of Range Management, 27, 400–1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimoser, F., Armstrong, H. & Suchant, R. (1999). Measuring forest damage of ungulates: what should be considered. Forest Ecology and Management, 120, 47–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reinhardt, D. & Kuhlemeier, C. (2002). Plant arctitecture. EMBO Reports, 3, 846–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rhoades, D. F. (1979). The evolution of plant chemical defense against herbivores. In Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites, ed. Rosenthal, G. A. & Janzen, D. H.. New York: Academic Press, pp. 1–55.Google Scholar
Rhoades, D. F. & Cates, R. G. (1976). Towards a general theory of plant antiherbivore chemistry. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, 10, 168–213.Google Scholar
Richards, J. H. (1993). Physiology of plants recovering from defoliation. In Grasslands for our World, ed. Baker, M. J.. Proceedings of the XVII International Grassland Congress. Wellington: SIR Publishing, pp. 85–94.Google Scholar
Rietkerk, M., Ketner, P., Burger, J., Hoorens, B. & Olff, H. (2000). Multiscale soil and vegetation patchiness along a gradient of herbivore impact in a semi‐arid grazing system in West Africa. Plant Ecology, 148, 207–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ritchie, M. E. & Olff, H. (1999). Spatial scaling laws yield a synthetic theory of biodiversity. Nature, 400, 557–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rooke, T. (2003). Growth responses of a woody species to clipping and goat saliva. African Journal of Ecology, 41, 324–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, G. A. & Janzen, D. H. (1979). Herbivores: Their Interaction with Plant Secondary Metabolites. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, J. P. & Kotanen, P. M. (1994). Terrestrial plant tolerance to herbivory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 9, 145–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rossow, L. J., Bryant, J. P. & Kielland, K. (1997). Effects of above‐ground browsing by mammals on mycorrhizal infection in an early successional taiga ecosystem. Oecologia, 110, 94–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruess, R. W., Hendrick, R. L. & Bryant, J. P. (1998). Regulation of fine root dynamics by mammalian browsers in early successional Alaskan taiga forests. Ecology, 79, 2706–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryerson, D. E. & Parmenter, R. R. (2001). Vegetation change following removal of keystone herbivores from desert grasslands in New Mexico. Journal of Vegetation Science, 12, 167–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schittko, U. & Baldwin, I. T. (2003). Constraints to herbivore‐induced systemic responses: bi‐directional signalling along orthostichies in Nicotiana attenuata. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29, 763–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senft, R. L., Cougenhour, M. B., Bailey, D. W.et al. (1987). Large herbivore foraging and ecological heirarchies. Bioscience, 37, 789–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senn, J. & Haukioja, E. (1994). Reactions of the mountain birch to bud removal: effects of severity and timing, and implications for herbivores. Functional Ecology, 8, 494–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simon, J., Bosch, M., Molero, J. & Blanche, C. (2001). Conservation biology of the Pyrenean larkspur (Delphinium montanum): a case of conflict of plant versus animal conservation?Biological Conservation, 98, 305–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smit, R., Bokdam, J., Ouden, J.et al. (2001). Effects of introduction and exclusion of large herbivores on small rodent communities. Plant Ecology, 155, 119–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. S., Shiel, R. S., Millward, D. & Corkhill, P. (2000). The interactive effects of management on the productivity and plant community structure of an upland meadow: an 8 year field trial. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 1029–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spalinger, D. E. & Hobbs, N. T. (1992). Mechanisms of foraging in mammalian herbivores: new models of functional response. American Naturalist, 140, 325–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staines, B. W. (1977). Factors affecting the seasonal distribution of red deer (Cervus elaphus) at Glen Dye, north‐east Scotland. Annals of Applied Biology, 87, 495–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stamp, N. (2003). Out of the quagmire of plant defense hypotheses. Quarterly Review of Biology, 78, 23–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stohlgren, T. J., Schell, L. D. & Heuvel, B. (1999). How grazing and soil quality affect native and exotic plant diversity in rocky mountain grasslands. Ecological Applications, 9, 45–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strauss, S. Y. (1991). Indirect effects in community ecology: their definition, study and importance. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 6, 206–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, S. Y. & Agrawal, A. A. (1999). The ecology and evolution of plant tolerance to herbivory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14, 179–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strauss, S. Y., Rudgers, J. A., Lau, J. A. & Irwin, R. E. (2002). Direct and ecological costs of resistance to herbivory. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 17, 278–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tafangenyasha, C. (2001). Decline of the mountain acacia, Brachystegia glaucescens in Gonarezhou National Park, southeast Zimbabwe. Journal of Environmental Management, 63, 37–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tainton, N. M., Morris, C. D. & Hardy, M. B. (1996). Complexity and stability in grazing systems. In The Ecology and Management of Grazing Systems, ed. Hodgson, J. & Illius, A. W.. Wallingford: CAB International, pp. 275–300.Google Scholar
Thomas, M. A., Carrera, A. D. & Poverene, M. (2000). Is there any genetic differentiation among populations of Piptochaetium napostaense (Speg.) Hack (Poaceae) with different grazing histories?Plant Ecology, 147, 227–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, D. B. A., Hester, A. J. & Usher, M. B. (eds.) (1995). Heaths and Moorland: Cultural Landscapes. Edinburgh: HMSO.Google Scholar
Thompson, K., Grime, J. P. & Mason, G. (1977). Seed germination in response to diurnal fluctuations in temperature. Nature, 267, 147–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tikkanen, O.‐P., Rousi, M., Ylioja, T. & Roininen, H. (2003). No negative correlation between growth and resistance to multiple herbivory in a deciduous tree, Betula pendula. Forest Ecology and Management, 177, 587–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilman, D. (1988). Plant Strategies and the Dynamics and Structure of Plant Communities. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Tilman, D. (1994). Competition and biodiversity in spatially structured habitats. Ecology, 75, 2–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijden, E., Wijn, M. & Verkaar, H. J. (1988). Defence and regrowth, alternative plant strategies in the struggle against herbivores. Oikos, 51, 355–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vare, H., Ohtonen, R. & Mikkola, K. (1996). The effect and extent of heavy grazing by reindeer on young sitka spruce trees in western Scotland. 1. Damage rates and the influence of habitat factors. Forestry, 64, 61–82.Google Scholar
Virtanen, R., Edwards, G. R. & Crawley, M. J. (2002). Red deer management and vegetation on the Isle of Rum. Journal of Applied Ecology, 39, 572–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallis de Vries, M. F., Laca, E. A. & Diemont, M. W. (1999). The importance of scale of patchiness for selectivity in grazing herbivores. Oecologia, 121, 355–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ward, D. & Young, T. P. (2002). Effects of large mammalian herbivores and ant symbionts on condensed tannins of Acacia drepanolobium in Kenya. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 28, 913–29.Google ScholarPubMed
Welch, D. (1985). Studies in the grazing of heather moorland in north‐east Scotland. IV. Seed dispersal and plant establishment in dung. Journal of Applied Ecology, 22, 461–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, D. (1986). Studies in the grazing of heather moorland in north‐east Scotland. V. Trends in Nardus stricta and other unpalatable graminoids. Journal of Applied Ecology, 23, 1047–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, T. C. R. (1993). The Inadequate Environment. Nitrogen and the Abundance of Animals. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilmshurst, J. F., Fryxell, J. M., Farm, B. P., Sinclair, A. R. E. & Henschel, C. P. (1999). Spatial distribution of Serengeti wildebeest in relation to resources. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 77, 1223–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, T. P. & Okello, B. D. (1998). Relaxation of an induced defence after exclusion of herbivores: spines on Acacia drepanolobium. Oecologia, 111, 508–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zangerl, A. (2003). Evolution of induced plant responses to herbivores. Basic and Applied Ecology, 4, 91–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×