Broomsedge populations have increased substantially over the last decade on roadsides in Georgia. The invasiveness of this species might have resulted from imazapic use for bermudagrass growth regulation and the limited use of MSMA on roadsides. The objectives of this research were to evaluate (1) differential growth inhibition of bermudagrass and broomsedge to imazapic, (2) susceptibility of isolated acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzymes of bermudagrass and broomsedge to imazapic, (3) broomsedge control with tank mixtures of imazapic with MSMA, and (4) the influence of imazapic on absorption and translocation of 14C-MSMA. In greenhouse experiments, imazapic reduced bermudagrass shoot biomass ~ 2 times more from the nontreated than broomsedge. Isolated ALS enzymes of bermudagrass were ~ 100 times more susceptible to inhibition by imazapic than broomsedge. In field experiments, imazapic provided no control of broomsedge, but MSMA alone controlled broomsedge 81% at 12 mo after initial treatments (MAIT). Broomsedge control was reduced to 45% when MSMA was tank mixed with imazapic at 12 MAIT. In laboratory experiments, imazapic tank mixtures did not reduce broomsedge absorption or translocation of 14C-MSMA. Overall, bermudagrass is more susceptible to imazapic due to greater target-site inhibition than broomsedge. Results emphasize the importance of MSMA use for broomsedge control, but agronomists should avoid tank mixtures with imazapic to reduce potential antagonism.

Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase)-inhibiting herbicides affect fatty acid biosynthesis in plants and are widely used to control smooth and hare barley in dicot crops in Australia. Recently, growers have experienced difficulty in controlling smooth and hare barley with herbicides from this mode of action. Dose–response experiments conducted on five suspected resistant populations confirmed varying levels of resistance to quizalofop and haloxyfop. The level of resistance in these populations was greater than 27-fold to quizalofop and greater than 15-fold to haloxyfop. The quizalofop dose required to reduce shoot biomass by 50% (GR50) for the resistant populations varied from 52.6 to 111.9 g ha−1, and for haloxyfop from 26.5 to 71.3 g ha−1. Sequencing the CT domain of the ACCase gene from resistant plants of different populations confirmed the presence of previously known mutations Ile1781Leu and Gly2096Ala. Amino acid substitution at the 2096 position conferred a greater level of resistance to haloxyfop than the substitution at the 1781 position. This study documents the first known case of field-evolved target-site resistance to ACCase-inhibiting herbicides in Australian populations of smooth barley.

New trait technology incorporating 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) resistance in soybean provides an alternative method to control weeds. However, the effect of postemergence treatments of 2,4-D on aryloxyalkanoate dioxygenase-12 (AAD-12) soybean on injury and yield components has not been reported. Our objectives were to characterize the effect of 2,4-D (dimethylamine salt) rates (0, 1,120, and 2,240 g ae ha−1) and soybean growth stage (V5, R2, or V5 followed by R2) on AAD-12 soybean injury and yield components. Less than 3% soybean injury was observed when 2,240 g ha−1 of 2,4-D was applied to R2 soybean, and less than 1% soybean injury was caused by 1,120 g ha−1 of 2,4-D. Seed yield, seed mass, pod number, seed number, seed per pod, reproductive node number, pods per reproductive node, node number, and percent reproductive nodes were not affected by 2,4-D treatments when applied at the V5, R2, or the V5 followed by R2 soybean growth stage. This research demonstrates that soybean transformed with AAD-12 can tolerate foliar applications of 2,4-D at rates up to 2,240 g ha−1 with no effect on soybean grain yield components.

Understanding abundance and distribution of weed species within the landscape of an agroecosystem is an important goal for weed science. Abundance is a measure of the number or frequency of individuals in an area. Distribution is a measure of the geographical range of a weed species. The study of weed population's abundance and distribution is helpful in determining how a population changes over time in response to selective pressures applied by our agronomic practices. Accurate estimates, however, of these two key variables are very important if we are to manage agricultural land both for productivity and for biodiversity.

American sloughgrass is a troublesome grass weed in winter wheat fields after rice in China. Mesosulfuron-methyl failed to control American sloughgrass in Danyang County in 2012. The purpose of this research was to determine the resistance level to mesosulfuron and other herbicides in American sloughgrass and to identify the molecular basis of resistance. Dose–response experiments indicated that this population was moderately resistant to mesosulfuron-methyl (7.6-fold) and pyroxsulam (6.0-fold), highly resistant to flucarbazone-sodium (20.3-fold), fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (565.0-fold), clodinafop-proargyl (19.5-fold), and pinoxaden (45.9-fold), and susceptible to isoproturon. Part of the acetolactate sythase (ALS) gene was cloned and sequenced to confirm the molecular mechanism of resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides. A Pro197Ser substitution was identified. This substitution is likely the molecular mechanism of resistance to mesosulfuron-methyl in the Danyang population in which it is cross-resistant to flucarbazone-sodium and pyroxsulam. This study established the first report of mesosulfuron-methyl resistance likely caused by a Pro197 substitution in American sloughgrass and a potential herbicide to control this resistant weed.

Aminocyclopyrachlor (AMCP) is a synthetic auxin herbicide used for broadleaf weed control in pasture and rangeland. The tolerance and fate of AMCP within pertinent grass species is not well understood. Research was conducted to establish the tolerance of four grass species to AMCP application and observe their absorption, translocation, and metabolism. Results indicate that tall fescue is the most tolerant of AMCP at rates required for weed control. Bahiagrass and bermudagrass are marginally tolerant, and cogongrass is the most sensitive. Tall fescue and bahiagrass absorbed more AMCP than bermudagrass and cogongrass, but cogongrass absorption is the most rapid and complete within 2 days after treatment (DAT). Cogongrass and bermudagrass translocated the least amount out of the target area, whereas bahiagrass and tall fescue translocated the most. Radioisotope imaging revealed that tall fescue may sequester absorbed AMCP in leaf tips. This sequestering may be the basis of the greater tolerance to AMCP by tall fescue relative to the other species evaluated. No metabolism of AMCP was detected in any grass species out to 42 DAT.

Studies were conducted to evaluate 14C-aminocyclopyrachlor absorption and translocation in alligatorweed, waterhyacinth, and waterlettuce. Alligatorweed plants were treated at the seven-node stage, waterhyacinth was treated at the five-leaf stage, and waterlettuce was treated at the eight-leaf stage. All plants were pretreated with nonlabeled aminocyclopyrachlor at 0.14 kg ai ha−1 with 1% (v/v) methylated seed oil (MSO). 14C-aminocyclopyrachlor was then applied to a protected leaf, and plants were harvested at 1, 2, 4, 12, 24, and 96 h after treatment (HAT). Radioactivity was determined in the treated leaf, shoots above treated leaf, shoots below treated leaf, roots, and growing solution. Absorption was rapid in all species and reached a maximum of 73, 72, and 73% of applied radioactivity for alligatorweed, waterhyacinth, and waterlettuce, respectively. In alligatorweed at 96 HAT, 43% of absorbed carbon-14 (14C) was translocated to shoots above the treated leaf and 17% was translocated to lower shoot tissue. In waterhyacinth at 96 HAT, 56% of absorbed 14C remained in the treated leaf, whereas 14 and 13% were found in parts above and below the treated leaf, respectively. In waterlettuce at 96 HAT, 50 and 33% of absorbed radioactivity was located above the treated leaf and in the growing solution, respectively. The low recovery of aminocyclopyrachlor in alligatorweed roots and growing solution might explain regrowth potential after herbicide treatment. These results also indicate that the lack of waterlettuce control with aminocyclopyrachlor is not due to reduced absorption or translocation.

Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to identify polymorphisms in α- and β-esterases loci and electrophoresis in starch gel to identify polymorphism in malate dehydrogenase (MDH; EC 1.1.1.37) and acid phosphatase (ACP; EC 3.1.3.2) isozymes loci in leaf tissues from samples of horseweed and hairy fleabane populations to determine genetic diversity and population structure. Similar or differential genetic divergence between the two species may guide specific use of herbicides. For samples of plants with high genetic similarity it is possible to adopt similar mechanisms and processes for their control. The proportion of polymorphic loci was 57.14, 50.0, and 53.6%, in samples of horseweed and hairy fleabane, for EST, MDH, and ACP isozymes, respectively. A comparison of the diversity parameters in the two species showed that the number of alleles is similar in the horseweed and hairy fleabane plants. The estimated heterozygosity in horseweed and hairy fleabane was also very close. A relatively low level of population differentiation was detected between horseweed and hairy fleabane (FST = 0.0199), which suggests a substantial genetic exchange among the two species. Accordingly, estimate of gene flow was high (Nm = 12.3172) for the alleles of the loci Est, Mdh, and Acp. The Nei's identity (I) values also was high (I = 0.9561) indicating very high similarity between the two Conyza species. AMOVA showed higher genetic variation within (95%) than among (5%) the two samples. The low genetic structure and high value of genetic identity was an important indication that alleles are exchanged between horseweed and hairy fleabane populations, and provides additional evidence of occurrence of outcrossing between populations or dispersion of samples of one for other site.

Shortawn foxtail is a competitive annual grass weed widely spread in east, south-central, and southwest China and parts of the Yellow River basin. One shortawn foxtail population (JSQT-1) resistant to fenoxaprop was identified in Jiangyan, Jiangsu province. Whole-plant experiments determined that the resistant population conferred high-level resistance to fenoxaprop (93-fold), clodinafop (21-fold), sethoxydim (107-fold), mesosulfuron (41-fold), and pyroxsulam (12-fold); moderate-level resistance to haloxyfop (8-fold), clethodim (9-fold), and pinoxaden (8-fold), and no resistance to isoproturon. Molecular analyses confirmed that the Ile-1781-Leu mutation was present in the resistant population. A dCAPS marker was used to detect the Ile-1781-Leu mutation. All 97 plants of the resistant population analyzed were homozygous mutants at the 1781 position. Our study established the first case of fenoxaprop resistance in shortawn foxtail, determined cross resistance to other herbicides, and elucidated that the molecular basis of resistance resulted from, at least partly, an Ile to Leu mutation at amino acid position 1781 in the plastid ACCase.

Resistance to herbicides occurs in weeds as the result of evolutionary adaptation (Jasieniuk et al. 1996). Basically, two types of mechanisms are involved in resistance (Beckie and Tardif 2012; Délye 2013). Target-site resistance (TSR) is caused by changes in the tridimensional structure of the herbicide target protein that decrease herbicide binding, or by increased activity (e.g., due to increased expression or increased intrinsic activity) of the target protein. Nontarget-site resistance (NTSR) is endowed by any mechanism not belonging to TSR, e.g., reduction in herbicide uptake or translocation in the plant, or enhanced herbicide detoxification (reviewed in Délye 2013; Yuan et al. 2007).

Herbicides are powerful chemical agents that exert strong biological activity on plants. The release of new formulations of dicamba and 2,4-D and their use in transgenic agronomic crops will probably result in many more applications during the time of year when sensitive nontarget vegetation will be present. The use of herbicides is regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and there are usually no negative effects on nontarget species. One negative aspect of herbicide use occurs when the application moves away from the target area and causes unwanted plant injury on susceptible species. Interest in herbicide drift is increasing, as evidenced by the number of refereed articles that investigate the mitigation or potential for herbicide drift (Figure 1). Although the topic of herbicide drift is broad, in this manuscript I will focus on an overview of off-site movement from a historical perspective and then discuss specific research protocols to examine vapor drift.

Glyphosate is used in the transition zone to control annual bluegrass in fully dormant warm-season grasses. A suspected resistant (R) biotype of annual bluegrass was identified on a golf course in South Carolina after at least 10 consecutive years of glyphosate application. Greenhouse bioassays revealed the R biotype was 4.4-fold resistant to glyphosate compared with a standard susceptible (S) biotype. Further studies were conducted to investigate the mechanism conferring glyphosate resistance in the R biotype. Leaf discs of both biotypes accumulated shikimate in response to increasing glyphosate concentration, but the glyphosate concentration resulting in 50% EPSP synthase inhibition as a result of shikimate accumulation (I50) was 4.2-fold higher in the R biotype compared with the S biotype. At the whole plant level, similar levels of shikimate accumulation were observed between biotypes at 6 and 24 h after treatment (HAT) with glyphosate, but greater shikimate accumulation occurred in the S biotype at 72, 120, and 168 HAT. Shikimate levels decreased in the R biotype after 72 HAT. There were no differences in 14C-glyphosate absorption between biotypes. However, more 14C-glyphosate translocated out of the treated leaf in the R biotype and into root tissues over time compared with the S biotype. Partial sequencing of the EPSP synthase gene revealed a point mutation that resulted in an Ala substitution at Pro106. Although other mechanisms may contribute to glyphosate resistance, these results confirm a Pro106 to Ala substitution is associated with resistance to glyphosate in the R annual bluegrass biotype.

Red sorrel is a common herbaceous creeping perennial weed in wild blueberry fields in Nova Scotia that spreads by seeds and an extensive creeping root system. Experiments were established to determine temperature thresholds for ramet sprouting from creeping root fragments and to develop growing-degree-day (GDD) models for predicting ramet emergence and flowering under field conditions in wild blueberry fields in Nova Scotia. Ramets sprouted from root fragments at temperatures as low as 1 C, with an optimum temperature for ramet sprouting around 22 C. Ramet sprouting was completely inhibited at temperatures above 35 C. Cumulative ramet emergence and flowering under field conditions were adequately explained as functions of GDD by a three-parameter power equation (R2 = 0.98) and a four-parameter logistic equation (R2 = 0.87), respectively. Ramet emergence began between 110 and 265 GDD and continued throughout the season at each site. Model prediction for the initiation of emergence was 92 GDD, and 50 and 95% emergence were predicted to occur at 1,322 and 2,696 GDD, respectively. Red sorrel ramets began to flower in the field between 308 and 515 GDD. Model prediction for the initiation of flowering was 289 GDD, and 50 and 95% flowering were predicted to occur at 545 and 1,336 GDD, respectively. Model validation was conducted with the use of two additional independent data sets for emergence and flowering and indicated good performance of the proposed models (R2 and root-mean-square error values ranging from 0.96 to 0.99 and 4.0 to 13.8, respectively). The models allow for direct comparison of red sorrel phenology to that of the wild blueberry and will aid in the development of new management strategies.

A waterhemp population (McLean County resistant, MCR) from McLean County, Illinois is resistant to both mesotrione and atrazine by elevated rates of herbicide metabolism. Research was conducted to investigate the inheritance of these resistance traits. Resistant and sensitive plants were crossed to obtain reciprocal F1 populations, which were then used to create pseudo-F2 and backcross (to sensitive parent; BCS) populations. The various populations were evaluated with whole-plant herbicide efficacy studies in a greenhouse. The responses of the F1 populations to both mesotrione and atrazine were intermediate when compared with parental populations. In the case of atrazine, BCS and F2 populations segregated 1 : 1 and 1 : 3, respectively, for susceptibility (S) : resistance (R), at a dose that controlled the sensitive parent but not the F1 or resistant parent. For mesotrione, variability was observed within the F1 populations, suggesting that mesotrione resistance is multigenic and the resistant parents used in the cross were not homozygous at the resistance loci. Furthermore, at low mesotrione doses, more F2 plants survived than expected on the basis of a single-gene trait, whereas at high doses, fewer F2 plants survived than expected. Dry weight data confirmed the conclusions obtained from survival data. Specifically, atrazine responses segregated into two discrete classes (R and S) in both the F2 and BCS populations, whereas mesotrione responses showed continuous distributions of phenotypes in F2 and BCS populations. We conclude that metabolism-based atrazine resistance in MCR is conferred by a single major gene, whereas inheritance of mesotrione resistance in this population is complex.

A segment of the debate surrounding the commercialization and use of glyphosate-resistant (GR) crops focuses on the theory that the implementation of these traits is an extension of the intensification of agriculture that will further erode the biodiversity of agricultural landscapes. A large field-scale study was initiated in 2006 in the United States on 156 different field sites with a minimum 3-yr history of GR-corn, -cotton or -soybean in the cropping system. The impact of cropping system, crop rotation, frequency of using the GR crop trait, and several categorical variables on seedbank weed population density and diversity was analyzed. The parameters of total weed population density of all species in the seedbank, species richness, Shannon's H′ and evenness were not affected by any management treatment. The similarity between the seedbank and aboveground weed community was more strongly related to location than management; previous year's crops and cropping systems were also important while GR trait rotation was not. The composition of the weed flora was more strongly related to location (geography) than any other parameter. The diversity of weed flora in agricultural sites with a history of GR crop production can be influenced by several factors relating to the specific method in which the GR trait is integrated (cropping system, crop rotation, GR trait rotation), the specific weed species, and the geographical location. Continuous GR crop, compared to fields with other cropping systems, only had greater species diversity (species richness) of some life forms, i.e., biennials, winter annuals, and prostrate weeds. Overall diversity was related to geography and not cropping system. These results justify further research to clarify the complexities of crops grown with herbicide-resistance traits to provide a more complete characterization of their culture and local adaptation to the weed seedbank.

Herbicide-resistant Palmer amaranth has become the most economically detrimental weed of cotton in the southeast United States. With the continual marginalization of potential herbicide tools, research has expanded to include alternative means of affecting future Palmer amaranth populations by altering safe sites and reducing inputs to the seedbank population. The influence of delayed Palmer amaranth establishment on seed production potential has not been investigated in the southeast United States. Studies were conducted to evaluate the influence of time of Palmer amaranth establishment on morphology, growth, and seed production. The experiment was a factorial, with five levels of Palmer amaranth transplanting (0 to 12 wk after cotton planting) and two levels of crop type (cotton and noncrop). In the absence of crop competition, the first cohort of Palmer amaranth produced 446,000 seeds per plant. This potential seed production was reduced 50% when Palmer amaranth plants were established nearly 6 wk later. In contrast, the first Palmer amaranth cohort growing in competition with cotton produced 312,000 seeds, 30% less than was produced in the absence of competition. Interference from cotton shifted time to 50% seed production to nearly 4 wk earlier in the growing season, relative to plants without crop competition. Delayed establishment of Palmer amaranth simulates premature loss of herbicide efficacy and alters the competitive balance between cotton and Palmer amaranth. Although the planting time that resulted in 50% reduction in Palmer amaranth plant height at the end of the season was not affected by the presence of cotton, 50% reduction in plant width and biomass occurred within the first 3.8 wk of the growing season when growing with cotton, more than 4 wk earlier than Palmer amaranth growing without a crop. This suggests that early season weed control programs will have a large effect on Palmer amaranth potential growth and seed production, as well as crop yield. To implement soil seedbank reduction strategies effectively, information on mechanisms that regulate Palmer amaranth persistence in the soil seedbank is needed.

This article is written to provide some directions on how to determine if a plant species might influence its neighboring plants by allelopathy. There is insufficient space for detailed instructions for individual experiments, so I will provide references for different general approaches and opinions on common pitfalls of those who have worked in this research area.

Little published information is available related to seed germination and seedling establishment of Asia Minor bluegrass, a problematic grass weed in some regions of China. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of different environmental factors on Asia Minor bluegrass seed germination. The optimum temperature for germination was around 10 to 20 C, and more than 90% of seeds germinated under 20/10 and 25/15 C temperature regimes. Also, light and pH did not appear to have any effect on seed germination. Asia Minor bluegrass was sensitive to osmotic stress, but tolerant of NaCl. No seedlings emerged when seeds were buried 4 cm deep. The result suggested that Asia Minor bluegrass has the potential to spread into a large area in China. To prevent its spreading, measures such as soil cultivation can be used to limit seed germination from increased burial depth and/or nonselective herbicides can be applied to kill early-germinating weed seedlings in late summer.

Itchgrass is an aggressive weed species in tropical agroecosystems. Because of phytosanitary restrictions to exports, pineapple producers must use a zero tolerance level for this species. An understanding of itchgrass seedling emergence would help producers to better time POST control. The objective of the present study was to characterize itchgrass seedling emergence patterns and develop a predictive model. Multiple field experiments were conducted in four agricultural fields in Costa Rica between 2010 and 2011 for a total of 9 site-years. Itchgrass consistently showed a biphasic emergence pattern, with a first emergence phase that was faster and more consistent across site-years than the second one. Weibull + logistic models based on chronological time (R2adj = 0.92) and thermal time with Tbase = 20 C (R2adj = 0.92) provided the best fit for the combined emergence data for two experimental locations in 2010. Both models predicted itchgrass seedling emergence adequately for most site-years, but the thermal-time model was more accurate (R2adj = 0.64 to 0.86) than the chronological model (R2adj = 0.31 to 0.74), especially when temperatures were high. Both models showed high accuracy in the first emergence phase but tended to underestimate emergence rate during the second phase. The models predicted 50% emergence at 14 d or 80 growing degree days and the stabilization of the first emergence phase at approximately 25 d or 200 growing degree days. Thus, these models can be used to properly time itchgrass POST control. More research is needed to understand the regulatory mechanisms responsible for the variability of the second emergence phase.

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) –inhibitor resistance has been recently documented in a yellow nutsedge biotype in Arkansas rice production, with a target-site mutation resulting in an amino acid substitution from Trp574 to Leu. Preliminary observations have indicated that the resistant biotype showed distinct phenotypic characteristics. Two greenhouse experiments were conducted on the resistant biotype in comparison with three susceptible standards (1) to understand differential growth habit and spatial distribution, and (2) to characterize shoot emergence pattern and seedling vigor. The resistant biotype exhibited a drastically different growth habit with secondary and tertiary basal bulbs emerging away from the parent shoot, resulting in a wider spatial distribution and ground coverage compared to the very compact growth habit of susceptible biotypes. Unlike the susceptible biotypes, the rhizomes developing into tubers were not often connected to the primary basal bulb, but were originating randomly from daughter shoots. The resistant biotype produced an extensive subterranean network of rhizomes and basal bulbs, with wider root spread and distribution compared to the susceptible biotypes. The growth habit of the resistant biotype appeared to be intermediate between yellow and purple nutsedges. Further, the resistant biotype showed a considerably delayed emergence pattern with relatively high levels of tuber dormancy. Although the resistant plants exhibited low early-growth seedling vigor and biomass production compared to the susceptible biotypes (perhaps because of smaller tubers), final aboveground biomass production was greater than that of susceptible biotypes. The overall growth habit and phenotype of the resistant biotype may provide a competitive advantage over adjacent species through the ability to occupy niches and gain improved access to critical resources. The distinct growth pattern may also mean that tillage should not be relied upon for control because it can assist further spread by disconnecting and displacing the chains of rhizomes.