Organic matter is a key element of soil fertility. However, in-soil stocks of organic matter are in decline in specialized crop farms. Reintroducing organic fertilizers could be a way to increase or at least maintain organic matter stocks in these soils. Straw/manure exchanges between crop farms and livestock farms could improve overall land fertility and thus the long-term income of farmers. Here we used a bioeconomic model to estimate the agronomic and economic benefits of straw/manure exchanges as part of a strategy to improve soil fertility. Iterative simulations were run with prices of farmyard manure varying from €0 to €20 ton−1 to identify the price at which a crop farm can buy manure and sell straw without degrading its net income (manure ceiling price) compared to purchasing mineral fertilizer only and ploughing back straw. Parallel simulations were run to identify the price at which a livestock farmer can sell manure and buy straw without degrading its net income (manure floor price) compared to keeping all manure on the farm and buying straw on the market. The key new contributions of this study are that it (i) considers the characteristics of manure beyond its short-term fertilizing value, i.e., better mineralization of humus and a 10% increase in crop yields, (ii) estimates both the economic and agronomic benefits of manure and (iii) assesses the impacts of uncertainties on manure effects and prices. The results show that it is profitable for a French farmer in a conventional field crop system to buy manure at a price between €10 ton−1 in the short term and €18 ton−1 in the long term. The results also show that it is still economically advantageous for a livestock farmer to sell part of their manure, even at a very low price. This study shows that it is possible to better distribute manure resources over a territory in a way that enriches the soils of crop farms without degrading the soils of livestock farms.

We assess emerging relationships between production decisions and market channel selection among a small sample of hemp growers (22) in Colorado and Kentucky using qualitative interviews. We found producers differences by market channel, product and state. For instance, producers who relied on intermediated marketing strategies cultivated more acres on average and used fewer distinct market channels and strategies than those relying on direct markets. Product differences were found regarding processing, storage and perishability. Respondents identified four factors critical to their choice of market channels for their hemp products: research, profitability, trust and knowledge. The findings can help inform public and private decision-making regarding best hemp marketing practices and future needs of the hemp industry.

Enteric fermentation from livestock accounts for over a quarter of the United States' methane emissions. A potent greenhouse gas, methane has 80 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period. An emerging focus of research is the incorporation of algae (e.g., kelp, seaweed or microalgae) into livestock feed, with several studies documenting dramatic suppression of enteric methane emissions in cattle. As part of a nationwide multidisciplinary study of using algae feed supplements to reduce methane emissions and improve dairy productivity, we used focus groups and individual interviews to measure organic and conventional dairy farmer's knowledge and opinions of algae-based feed supplements. Our goals were to learn what both organic and conventional dairy farmers know about algae-based feed supplements, why they do or do not feed them to their cows and if they were interested in the methane-reducing potential of these algal-based feeds. We also sought to understand where they get valued information about animal nutrition. We found most farmers were aware of algae-based feed supplements on the market, but organic farmers were more familiar with marketing claims. Farmers reported feeding algae-based feed supplements to address herd health concerns, especially reproductive issues and pink eye, but expressed rising costs of the supplements as an obstacle. Both organic and conventional farmers expressed interest in suppressing methane emissions, but only if incentives are provided. Lastly, participants receive trusted information about feed supplements from their dairy nutritionists, who help them make decisions around feed purchasing and rations.

On-farm food loss and waste is estimated to be 16% of the total agricultural-related greenhouse gas emissions globally, and reductions in these emissions have the potential to make a significant impact on climate change. There is a plethora of research being undertaken in this area across countries, food supply chains and stakeholders. However, differences in definitions, quantification methods, understanding of drivers and proposed solutions can be difficult to navigate. This narrative review provides a critical overview of the current research landscape of on-farm food loss and waste. The review has two objectives. Firstly, it provides a stock-take of on-farm food loss and waste definitions, quantification methods, causes and management options. Secondly, it provides researchers, policy makers and industry stakeholders with recommendations on opportunities to be pursued.

Characterizing food systems, i.e., describing their organizational features, can help to generate a better understanding of the structural vulnerabilities that constrain transitions towards sustainable food security. However, their characterization across different economic contexts remains challenging. In this paper, by linking key concepts from research on food regimes, food system vulnerabilities and responsible innovation, we aim to characterize food systems in a developing and a developed economy to identify their shared vulnerabilities. We applied a case study design to characterize food production, processing and distribution in the province of Québec (Canada) and in the state of São Paulo (Brazil). In both cases, the processing and distribution stages have higher economic predominance when compared to the agricultural production stage. Furthermore, we observed concentration in a few activities in both food systems, with a shared focus on export-oriented supply chains. Vulnerabilities in both food systems include: (1) increased interdependence because some supply chains are export-oriented or depend on foreign labor and are, therefore, exposed to external risks; (2) concentration in a few activities, which threatens present and future local food diversity and (3) unequal power relations, making small and medium players vulnerable to decisions made by big players. The characterization developed in this study shows that the two food systems are mainly pursuing economic goals, following the institutional logics of the neoliberal food regime, which are not necessarily aligned with food security goals. It also exposes the presence of characteristics of ‘responsibility’ that may eventually help overcome food systems' vulnerabilities and support transitions toward sustainability.

There have been no systematic experiments conducted in Nevada's water-limited environment that examined the simultaneous benefits of soil health and feed value derived from cool-season cover cropping systems. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of different annual cool-season cover crop systems on above and belowground biomass production, plant tissue carbon and nitrogen, forage nutritive value (crude protein, acid, and neutral detergent fiber), relative feed value (RFV), and short-term soil health indicators under irrigation in a semi-arid environment. Treatments (cover crop systems) were a fallow (no cover crop), five monocultures of rye (Secale cereale L.), winter lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.), arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum Savi), white sweetclover (Melilotus alba), forage kale (Brassica oleracea L.), and two three-species mixtures in 50-25-25 seeding ratios (CCM 1: rye, winter lentil, arrowleaf clover; CCM 2: rye, white sweetclover, forage kale). Cover crop systems were arranged in an RCBD with three replications. Plots were fall seeded in Reno, NV early October of each year (2020 and 2021) and terminated at the end of July of 2021 and 2022, respectively. Averaged across years, aboveground biomass production was lowest for the monoculture of winter lentil (4104 kg DM ha−1; SE = 1551) compared to all other cover crop systems (average = 7593 kg DM ha−1; SE = 1551). Biomass carbon produced was lowest for winter lentil (1717 kg ha−1; SE = 675) relative to all other cover crop systems (average = 3227 kg ha−1; SE = 675). The CCM 1 system had a greater C/N ratio (36.3) than CCM 2 and the monocultures of winter lentil, arrowleaf clover, and white sweetclover (average = 24.9). Belowground biomass did not differ among cover crop systems (average = 3161 kg DM ha−1; SE = 962). Crude protein concentration was similar among cover crop systems but the RFV was greatest for forage kale (RFV = 165; SE = 4.0) among all cover crop systems. Soil total N and organic carbon concentration did not differ among cover crop systems but soil K concentration was greatest under fallow (428 mg kg−1 soil; SE = 26) relative to all other systems (average = 345.6 mg kg−1 soil; SE = 26). Soil microbial community biomass was not altered by cover crop system or its interaction with year. While the short-term impact of the cover crop systems on soil health indicators was minimal relative to the fallow system, the overall results suggested that there is potential to integrate cover crops in Nevada's semi-arid environment under irrigation.

Pollinators are a crucial group of organisms due to their role in the maintenance of environmental biodiversity and crop production. Pollinators may be very diverse; however, in temperate areas they are mainly insects, and the most active and important are certainly the bees. Not only the well-known honeybee: there are almost 2000 species of wild bees in Europe, and about 1000 just in Italy. There is an increasing public worry related to their decline and to the impact that this decline may have on agricultural production. The way public perception of the pollinator issue arises is generally neglected, especially by important stakeholders such as the farmers. Moreover, direct actions were not indicated by the policy till recently. We surveyed the main steps that possibly drove the current political perspective at the European and national (Italian) level. We found an increased boost toward healthier environments through the release of various documents. To look for changes that may include pollinator protection, we need to address the Common Agricultural Policies (CAPs), the tool that shapes the European agro-environments. A new CAP document has been recently released, and the Member States are moving toward the definition of eco-schemes to be adopted by farmers after payments. Italy placed pollinators in pole position with a dedicated eco-scheme: will pollinators finally be acknowledged?

As organic food increases in popularity, there has been increased interest in the history of organic farming. Previous scholarship has done excellent work documenting the social and political aspects of organic and sustainable agriculture, but less research has been done on the history of organic farming methods. The purpose of this study was to address this deficiency by surveying the organic and sustainable farming community in the midwestern and northeastern United States to identify influential authors, publications and organizations. Information about influences on farming practices was created using an anonymous online survey, distributed through organic and sustainable agriculture organizations in the target region. Out of the 224 respondents who completed the survey, 171 (76%) listed books, 169 (75%) listed organizations and 123 (55%) listed influential individuals. A total of 218 authors were identified, with Eliot Coleman receiving the most mentions, followed by Rodale publications, Wendell Berry, Acres U.S.A. magazine, Masanobu Fukuoka, Joel Salatin and Michael Pollan. 242 organizations were listed, with Marbleseed (MOSES), MOFGA, NOFA, PASA, OEFFA, LSP, SFA-MN and MOFFA most frequently mentioned. These results provide a useful starting point for future research on the development and dissemination of farming methods in this region. Research priorities include conducting oral histories with still-living authors of influential books and archiving organizational records before critical historical information is lost.

Farmers and food entrepreneurs are encouraged to enter direct and intermediated markets for value-added food products, but do not have information that they need to determine whether the markets are financially feasible for their operations. We conduct timed trials in a state-of-the-art regional shared-use food processing facility in the Northeast, and test production costs for two high-quality, safe, value-added frozen products: blueberries and spinach. We combine this with research on capital costs, field research on distribution costs and baseline per-unit revenues, and published research on potential market returns, and assess the conditions under which frozen produce sales can be a good business choice for farmers and food businesses in local and regional food markets. We develop a roadmap and a calculator tool that potential market entrants, extension agents, regional food business centers and other agricultural support providers can modify to reflect local and regional market conditions. The tool can help determine whether entering the frozen produce market is a good fit for a farm or food business. In general, we find that frozen regional blueberries have potential to generate a profitable return for medium-scale farmers with access to a shared-use facility, or farmer aggregators with the ability to invest in their own facilities. Frozen regional spinach is unlikely to generate a profitable return at the regional scale. Our results provide critical information to policy makers regarding the scale of production necessary to justify investments in regional shared-used kitchens. Results also suggest that policy makers should be cautious when encouraging farmers and food businesses to enter value-added markets, as there is significant potential for these markets to under-perform.

Urban community gardens promote human health, offer recreational space and support urban biodiversity. Urban gardens are situated in diverse landscape contexts and have diverse social contexts with gardeners of various horticultural experiences and backgrounds, both of which results in the wide plant species variety of urban garden habitats. These plants represent a range of traits, one of which may be the production of substances that are poisonous to humans. These plants may also be of ecosystem functioning and biodiversity conservation value, creating an ecosystem service trade-off of human health promotion. In this paper, we report on the occurrence of poisonous plant species in 30 urban community gardens in two German cities (Berlin, Munich) and discuss potential concerns around poisonous and highly poisonous plants in urban gardens. We conclude that, depending on the garden participants as well as the goals of the garden organization, poisonous plants should be carefully monitored and managed to dually mitigate health risks while supporting biodiversity conservation. We propose possible strategies to manage potential threats posed by these plants while simultaneously allowing them to reside alongside people in urban gardens.

This study evaluated the agro-environmental and economic effectiveness of strips introduced in a diversified organic vegetable system. Two experiments of three experimental years (2018, 2019, 2020) were carried out within the 4-year rotation of MOnsampolo VEgetable organic Long-Term Experiment (MOVE LTE) in Central Italy to test strip cropping vs pure stand. The crop combinations in the two experiments were faba bean (Vicia faba L.)–tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum L.) and common wheat (Triticum aestivum)–zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.). We determined the productive and economic performances, disease and weed control, nutritional differences and effectiveness in returning carbon to the soil. The two strip cropping systems allowed a better use of resources, enhancing plant biomass and crop residues, particularly for tomato (+24%) and zucchini (+63%). However, the greater plant biomass did not always result in an increase in crop yields. For example, while the wheat–zucchini strip system showed a land equivalent ratio >1 in all three experimental years with a high yield performance in zucchini (+54% of yield), the faba bean–tomato system was more productive in strips only in 2018. On the contrary, this latter system contributed a carbon return >1 in all three experimental years. No significant differences between strip and pure stand systems were observed for fusarium (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici) and oidium (Oidium spp.) diseases on tomato and zucchini crops, respectively, and for weed control. Lastly, greater labor costs associated in both experiments did not affect their profitability (+21% and +319% in faba bean–tomato and wheat–zucchini experiments, respectively). Overall, our findings pointed out that farmers could increase sustainability of their cropping systems with the introduction of a well-designed strip cropping system, which can lead to the reduction of economic risks, greater potential soil carbon and more efficient use of resources on the same land.

Food loss and waste throughout the food supply chain is a growing issue with significant economic, social and environmental implications. Wasted food represents lost profits for the food industry, increased food insecurity in communities and the unnecessary production of greenhouse gas emissions, among many other detrimental consequences. Due to the large number of stakeholders involved in the food supply chain and the complexity of their relationships, there is increasing interest in addressing food waste issues through collaborative governance approaches, such as food policy councils (FPCs). Assessing how FPCs engage diverse stakeholders and organizations in food waste reduction efforts can provide important lessons for improving local food systems governance more broadly and contribute to the creation of more sustainable food systems. To do this, we leverage the theoretical concept of ‘collaborative advantage’ to analyze how FPCs foster collaboration, both internally and with external partners, to achieve policy and programmatic goals that individual stakeholders could not achieve alone. Drawing on plan documents and semi-structured interviews with members of five FPCs across the USA, we find that FPCs can foster collaborative advantage by establishing comprehensive food system plans, systematically measuring progress toward objectives, and transparently communicating the evidence of their progress to the communities they serve.

To reduce agriculture's carbon, land and water footprint, the diffusion of conservation farming methods is one commonly cited proposition. Yet the process of translating available information on new conservation farming methods into farmers' practices is often a black box in many studies. This understanding is critical to inform strategies for scaling these complex, knowledge-intensive, but necessary practices for improving agriculture's resource and climate balance sheet. By implementing a series of mediation analysis using data from 700 households in Malawi and 930 households in Tanzania, this study examines how an improved understanding of conservation agriculture (CA) principles is an important mediator in the pathway from extension contact to the adoption of two of the CA practices examined. For the adoption of conservation tillage, the share of the mediated treatment effect was in the 31.5–34.4% range, while it was 31.6–46.9% for the adoption of soil cover (mulching). Our results suggest that unless learning from external sources strongly correlates with improved farmers' technical understanding of new farming practices, private learning by doing must be a critical adjunct to other avenues of learning. Beyond the basic promotional goals, improving farmers' technical know-how needs to be the centerpiece of holistic efforts in support of conservation farming and similar knowledge-intensive practices necessary for agriculture's sustinability goals.

Barley is one of the most consumed cereals, with many different cultivars available worldwide. Like other crops, its yield has been affected by climate change and soil degradation. This work proposes controlled-release protein-based matrices with incorporated zinc to improve barley seed germination and zinc content in the plant. Thus, the main objective of this study was to investigate the use of controlled-release protein-based matrices for massive crops, such as barley. Different barley cultivars of barley were studied: Barke, Golden Promise, Morex, WB-200, WB379, and WB-446. The seeds of each cultivar were also analyzed in order to explain the behavior of plants observed during the growth. To this end, the physico-chemical (FT-IR, Raman spectroscopy, and Zn concentration) and microstructural (SEM) properties of the different seeds were firstly evaluated to establish differences between the studied cultivars. In addition, the use of controlled-release soybean protein-based matrices without zinc (M) or with zinc incorporated (MZ) was evaluated as fertilizers in the different barley cultivars. In this sense, the use of these matrices as a zinc carrier improved seed germination and zinc content in the plants, indicating that the use of matrices improves the amount of zinc assimilated by the crops (up to 30 and 50% with M and MZ, respectively) and allows the proper root growth of all cultivars of barley. In conclusion, this article shows the potential of controlled-release protein-based matrices as substitutes for conventional fertilization.

Although the impacts of intensive agriculture on biodiversity and strategies for mitigating these effects have been widely described, small-scale, diversified farms and the opportunities they present for bird conservation have been less thoroughly examined. This omission is potentially significant, because this form of agriculture represents a growing sector of the industry in the populous northeastern USA, and the diverse habitats on these farms contrast with larger, structurally homogeneous intensive agriculture. To evaluate bird-habitat associations and conservation opportunities for supporting species of conservation concern on these small, diversified farms, we conducted avian point count and vegetation surveys across 23 farms in western Massachusetts during the summers of 2017 and 2018. We used Poisson-binomial mixture models and canonical correspondence analysis to assess the effects of a suite of microhabitat-, field- and landscape-scale (1 km buffer around the field) variables on the abundance of bird species. Our results confirmed that shrubland birds, a group of species of elevated conservation concern, accounted for 52% of the total observations, including song sparrow (Melospiza melodia), gray catbird (Dumatella carolinensis), common yellowthroat (Geothlypis trichas) and American goldfinch (Spinus tristis). Species–habitat relationships were diverse; however, smaller field sizes, and increased cover of tall, dense, woody or non-productive vegetation types were associated with higher abundance of shrubland species as well as lower abundance of crop pests such as European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and house sparrow (Passer domesticus). These findings support the hypothesis that small, diversified farms are supporting birds of high conservation concern, and we provide species-specific guidelines for farmers interested in conserving birds on their land.

The Canary Islands are a Spanish archipelago, where the greatest water demand comes from agriculture. Being an outermost European region that receives a large number of tourists per year, the need for greater food sovereignty becomes more important. It is vital to undertake studies on the water footprint (WF) of the main crops, in order to identify the irrigation practices of local farmers and establish recommendations for water saving through improvement of these practices. The results of this study show that the average WF for bananas in the Canary Islands is 340.80 m3 t−1 ± 34.07 and for avocadoes is 1741.94 m3 t−1 ± 286.16. The WF models proposed can explain 92 and 86% of the total variance of the WF for banana and avocado crops, respectively. The WF of both crops can be reduced, and this work can be a starting point for improvement. Farmers will face a change in temperature and water availability due to climate change; useful water saving strategies for local farmers can now be made based on estimation of the WF with yield and net needs data.

Perennial Lewis flax (Linum lewisii Pursh) has the potential to be grown as a new oilseed crop that could simultaneously meet commodity production, ecosystem service provisioning, and farm resiliency goals. Despite many potential benefits, Lewis flax remains minimally explored as an agronomic crop. Determining agronomic best practices for producing economically relevant stands of Lewis flax is critical to its adoption as an oilseed crop. Several aspects of Lewis flax agronomic production were explored through the lens of adaptive management between 2020 and 2022. Initial field trials aimed at assessing spring-seeded Lewis flax row spacing, plant population density, and intercropping strategies with legumes and grasses failed due to poor establishment. Heavy rains and excessive weed pressure further complicated attempts to reestablish these initial trials. We established additional Lewis flax plots via fall and dormant seeding in response to the failure of our first experiment. This second experiment focused on exploring row spacing, population density, and seeding timing impacts on flax production. Flax yield did not differ among our treatments, averaging 59 kg ha−1. The low yields realized by our field trials may be due to several factors including need for harvest technology optimization, high weed pressure, and need for Lewis flax genetic improvement. Our study is a first step toward developing recommendations for optimal production strategies for Lewis flax in an agronomic context. Continued exploration of methods to improve management and yield of Lewis flax will be critical to its successful development as an agronomic crop.

While grain farming has seen a major shift toward organic production in recent years, the USA continues to lag behind with domestic demand continuing to outpace domestic supply, making the USA an all-around net importer. The Midwestern USA is poised to help remedy this imbalance; however, farmers continue to slowly transition to organic production systems. Existing literature has identified three prevalent narratives that farmers use to frame their organic transition: environmentalism, farm-family legacy and economic factors, in addition to a four and untested religiosity narrative. This study sought to better understand how these different narratives frame grain farmers’ thought processes for transitioning from conventional production systems to certified organic production systems. We co-created narratives around organic production with farmers, which resulted in four passages aligned with the literature: farm-family legacy, economic values, environmental values and Christianity and stewarding Eden. Then, we mailed a paper survey to conventional, in transition and certified organic Indiana grain farmers in order to test how these different narratives motivated organic production. We found that the most prevalent narrative around organic production is the farm-family legacy, which specifically resonated with midsize farmers. We also found that the religious stewardship narrative resonated with a substantial number of organic and mixed practice farmers, which is likely due to Amish farmers within the sample. These results shed light on the role that narratives and associated values play in organic practice use and can inform the organic efforts of agricultural professionals.

Given the potential environmental and economic sustainability consequences of cover crop adoption, N fertilizer application, and residue management, this study focuses on the yield and financial effects of these on processing tomato production in Ontario, Canada. The study employs financial modeling using field data from a long-term cover crop experiment (oat, cereal rye, radish, and a radish-rye mixture) from 2010 to 2020. Averaged over six experimental years, compared to no cover (87 Mg ha−1) radish (99.6 Mg ha−1) and radish-rye mix (95.2 Mg ha−1) cover crops produce statistically significantly higher tomato yields as isolated practices, increasing farm net returns by $1120 ha−1 and $604 ha−1, respectively. When combined with N application, rye application additionally results in tomato yields statistically significantly higher than the base practice of no cover crop, zero N application and retained residue. Oat cover does not appear to have a statistically significant effect on tomato yields in this dataset. The application of N fertilizer results in statistically significantly higher tomato yield, increasing net returns by $882 ha−1, while residue management does not.