Our present genetic data of Acanthocephala, especially the mitochondrial (mt) genomes, remains very limited. In the present study, the nearly complete mt genome sequences of Sphaerirostris lanceoides (Petrochenko, 1949) was sequenced and determined for the first time based on specimens collected from the Indian pond heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes) (Ciconiiformes: Ardeidae) in Pakistan. The mt genome of S. lanceoides is 13 478 bp in size and contains 36 genes, including 12 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes (tRNAs) and two ribosomal RNA genes (rRNAs). Moreover, in order to clarify the phylogenetic relationship of the genera Centrorhynchus and Sphaerirostris, and to test the systematic position of S. lanceoides in the Centrorhynchidae, the phylogenetic analyses were performed using Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methods, based on concatenated nucleotide sequences of 12 PCGs, rRNAs and tRNAs. The phylogenetic results further confirmed the monophyly of the order Polymorphida and the paraphyly of the order Echinorhynchida in the class Palaeacanthocephala. Our results also challenged the validity of the genus Sphaerirostris (Polymorphida: Centrorhynchidae) and showed a sister relationship between S. lanceoides and S. picae (Rudolphi, 1819).

Comparing parasitic infection among individuals of wildlife populations can provide insight into factors that influence wildlife disease ecology. Strongylids are parasitic worms that infect the intestinal tract of vertebrates, and infection with strongylids can be approximated by counting strongylid eggs in dung samples. Here we tested for correlations between strongylid egg counts and 18 different individual characteristics, environmental and social factors in individually known wild African elephants. We counted more eggs in the dung samples of younger elephants and females relative to mature elephants and males. We also found that elephants spending more time outside reserves shed more strongylid eggs than elephants that were more often within reserves. Elephants that were less socially integrated, as measured by how much aggression they received from other elephants, shed fewer strongylid eggs; relatedly, socially isolated orphan elephants that had left their family shed fewer strongylid eggs than elephants that remained with their family. Our results suggest that landscapes altered by livestock grazing and social disruption caused by humans may impact parasitic infection in wildlife.

The spread of invasive, non-native species is a key threat to biodiversity. Parasites can play a significant role by influencing their invasive host's survival or behaviour, which can subsequently alter invasion dynamics. The North American signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) is a known carrier of Aphanomyces astaci, an oomycete pathogen that is the causative agent of crayfish plague and fatal to European crayfish species, whereas North American species are considered to be largely resistant. There is some evidence, however, that North American species, can also succumb to crayfish plague, though how A. astaci affects such ‘reservoir hosts’ is rarely considered. Here, we tested the impact of A. astaci infection on signal crayfish, by assessing juvenile survival and adult behaviour following exposure to A. astaci zoospores. Juvenile signal crayfish suffered high mortality 4-weeks post-hatching, but not as older juveniles. Furthermore, adult signal crayfish with high-infection levels displayed altered behaviours, being less likely to leave the water, explore terrestrial areas and exhibit escape responses. Overall, we reveal that A. astaci infection affects signal crayfish to a much greater extent than previously considered, which may not only have direct consequences for invasions, but could substantially affect commercially harvested signal crayfish stocks worldwide.

Lernaeenicus radiatus, a mesoparasitic pennellid copepod, has long been known in the northwest Atlantic with metamorphosed females infecting the muscle of marine fish. The study herein is the first to identify a definitive first host, black sea bass Centropristis striata, for L. radiatus supporting larval development to adults and sexual reproduction in the gills. This finding suggests a two-host life cycle for L. radiatus, with black sea bass as the first host. Heavy infections in the gill were associated with considerable pathology related to a unique and invasive attachment process that penetrated the gill and selectively attached to the gill filament cartilage. The morphology of the developing copepod was highly conserved with that of a related pennellid copepod, Lernaeocera branchialis, though was distinguished by the attachment process, unique pigmentation and other morphologic features described herein. Sequencing the small and large subunits of the ribosomal RNA and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I genes demonstrated L. radiatus to share closer identities with Lernaeocera and Haemobaphes spp. pennellid copepods rather than other Lernaeenicus spp. available in GenBank to date. Taxonomy of L. radiatus is discussed in relation to life cycles, tissue tropism, morphology and genetics of other closely related pennellid copepods.

Mature worms of Stephanoprora amurensis sp. nov. were obtained in an experimental study of its life cycle. In the Russian southern Far East, this trematode circulates using freshwater snails Parajuga subtegulata, freshwater fish and birds as the first, second intermediate and final hosts, respectively. Stephanoprora amurensis sp. nov. differs from the well-known representatives of Stephanoprora in a number of morphometric indicators of the developmental stages. The validity of the species was also confirmed by nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers. In addition, new genetic data were obtained for Echinochasmus suifunensis and Echinochasmus milvi. An analysis of phylogenetic relationships within Echinochasmidae based on the 28S rRNA gene and ITS2 region identified two clusters, one of which combines species of Echinochasmus with 20–22 collar spines and short-tailed cercariae, and the other which includes Stephanoprora spp. and a number of representatives of Echinochasmus with 24 collar spines and long-tailed cercariae. The results of phylogenetic analysis based on ITS2 data show interfamily level of differences between the two clusters and intergeneric differentiation between the three subclusters uniting the species of Stephanoprora and Echinochasmus.

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is the most common helminthic brain infection related to epilepsy. Only albendazole (ABZ) and praziquantel are used in its treatment. The development of new therapeutics has been encouraged. Taenia crassiceps cysticerci intracranial infection is the experimental model used in NCC studies. This study evaluated the histopathology of the brains of BALB/c mice experimentally infected with T. crassiceps cysticerci after the treatment with the ABZ/nitazoxanide (NTZ) combination. Thirty days after the inoculation the mice received an oral single dose of the ABZ/NTZ combination (40 mg kg−1 each). The control groups were treated with: NaCl 0.9%; ABZ or NTZ. The histopathologic evaluation of the brains was performed 24 h after treatment. The ABZ treatment induced discrete mononuclear inflammatory infiltration, meningitis, gliosis, hyperaemia and hippocampus compression; moderate ependimitis and oedema. The NTZ treatment induced accentuated inflammatory infiltration, foamy macrophages, ependimitis, choroiditis, gliosis and hyperaemia and moderate oedema. The ABZ/NTZ combination treatment induced a significant decrease in the polymorphonuclear inflammatory infiltration, ependimitis, choroiditis, gliosis, hyperaemia and ventriculomegaly in comparison with the other groups. The cysticerci showed destruction of the tegument not observed in other groups. The ABZ/NTZ combination is efficient as the parasite showed signs of destruction and lower damage to the host's tissue.

Giardia lamblia is a causative agent of persistent diarrhoea widespread in regions with low hygienic standards. Laboratory research is based on cloned lines issuing from various patient isolates typed in the late 1980s and 90s using restriction analysis and serology. In the present study, we compared the well-characterized strain WBC6 with another clone of the parent WB isolate termed WBA1 and with a clone from another isolate, GS/M-83-H7, using shotgun mass spectrometry proteomics. We identified 398 proteins differentially expressed between the GS and both WB isolates and 97 proteins differentially expressed between the two WB isolates. We investigated the expression levels of the predominant variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs) in each clone and matched the previously described major VSPs of each strain to the corresponding open reading frame sequences identified by whole-genome sequencing efforts. Furthermore, since the original WB isolate comes from a patient treated with metronidazole, we compared the susceptibilities of the strains to nitro compounds, as well the expression levels of enzymes involved in nitro reduction and on the corresponding enzyme activities and found distinct differences between the three strains.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is one of the most common zoonotic diseases worldwide, particularly in rural areas. This study aimed at the identification of the genotype/species belonging to Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) specimens in retrieved percutaneously from the human host and to investigate their relationship with cyst characteristics. The genetic identification of cyst material was performed by mt-CO1 gene polymerase chain reaction, and confirmed via sequencing. A total of 110 CE cysts were identified as E. granulosus s.l. In detail, 104 belonged to E. granulosus sensu stricto (G1 and G3) and six isolates were in the E. canadensis cluster (G6/7). All clusters were tested for the relationship between demographics, cyst features and genetic diversity. The relationship between genetic variation and certain clinical characteristics such as cyst volume and location were statistically significant for G6/7 cluster. Further studies are required with a larger sample set to investigate the relationship between the genetic variability of E. granulosus s.l. and cyst features.

In the present study, we identified the ectoparasite communities of red foxes in three regions of Poland that encompassed two endemic regions for the occurrence of Dermacentor reticulatus, as well as a region that is free of this tick species (‘gap’ area). Our study sites were selected to enable the role of foxes as hosts for juvenile (nest dwelling) and adult (exophilic) D. reticulatus ticks to be determined, and to assess their contribution to the spread of this important vector of Babesia canis. We compared also ectoparasite communities between adult foxes with those of fox cubs. Finally, we carried out a systematic search for subcutaneous ticks determining their prevalence and abundance. In 2016–2018, 366 adult foxes and 25 live-trapped cubs were examined for ectoparasites. Ectoparasites were identified based on morphological features, PCR amplification and sequencing. The total prevalence of ectoparasites was higher in cubs (68%) than in adults (62.8%). In adults, 15 parasite species were recorded, including four tick species, seven flea species, scabies, and one Anopluran species each in the genera Felicola and Lipoptena. In cubs, six ectoparasite species were found, including Ixodes kaiseri, a species not found in adults. Although Ixodes ricinus and D. reticulatus were the dominant tick species on adult foxes, no D. reticulatus ticks were found on cubs. Subcutaneous ticks were common (38%) and abundant in all areas. Molecular analysis of subcutaneous nodules allowed the identification of 17 I. ricinus and five D. reticulatus. In conclusion, red foxes play a minor role as hosts of D. reticulatus.

Human neurocysticercosis (NCC) is a worldwide neglected disease caused by Taenia solium metacestode and responsible for various complications and neurological disorders. This study aimed to evaluate the use of specific immunoglobulin Y (IgY) produced by laying hens immunized with a hydrophobic fraction of Taenia crassiceps metacestodes (hFTc) in NCC diagnosis. Egg yolk IgY antibodies were fractionated, purified and characterized. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was carried out to evaluate the production kinetics and avidity maturation of anti-hFTc IgY antibodies throughout the IgY obtention process. Antigen recognition tests were carried out by Western blotting and immunofluorescence antibody test using purified and specific anti-hFTc IgY antibodies for detection of parasitic antigens of T. crassiceps and T. solium metacestodes. Sandwich ELISA was performed to detect circulating immune complexes formed by IgG and parasitic antigens in human sera. The results showed high diagnostic values (93.2% sensitivity and 94.3% specificity) for immune complexes detection in human sera with confirmed NCC. In conclusion, specific IgY antibodies produced from immunized hens with hFTc antigens were efficient to detect T. solium immune complexes in human sera, being an innovative and potential tool for NCC immunodiagnosis.

We compared lizard endoparasite assemblages between the Atlantic Forest and naturally isolated forest enclaves to test the ecological release hypothesis, which predicts that host specificity should be lower (large niche breadth) and parasite abundance should be greater for parasites from isolated forest enclaves (poor assemblages) than for parasites from the coastal Atlantic Forest (rich assemblages). Parasite richness per specimen showed no difference between the isolated and non-isolated areas. Parasite abundance did not differ between the isolated and non-isolated areas but showed a positive relationship with parasite richness considering all areas (isolated and non-isolated). Furthermore, host specificity was positively related to parasite richness. Considering that host specificity is inversely proportional to the host range infected by a parasite, our results indicate that in assemblages with greater parasite richness, parasites tend to infect a smaller range of hosts than do those in simple assemblages. In summary, our study partially supports the ecological release hypothesis: in assemblages with greater parasite richness, lizard parasites from Atlantic Forest are able to increase their parasite abundance (per host), possibly through facilitated infection; however, the amplitude of infected hosts only expands in poor assemblages (lower parasite richness).

Data presented in this work represents the first record of parasites from the Alpine and Pyrenean Lagopus muta subspecies, providing valuable information to consider for conservation management. From 1987 to 2018, 207 Rock ptarmigans were collected in the framework of a long-term sanitary monitoring in France. Eight parasites were found in the Alpine Rock ptarmigan, and one in the Pyrenean subspecies. Only two parasites occurred with high prevalence in the Alpine Rock ptarmigan: Capillaria caudinflata (38.9%) and Eimeria sp. (34.7%). Prevalence of the other parasites (Ascaridia compar, Cestodes, Amphimerus sp. and Trichostrongylus tenuis) was lower than 20%. Dispharynx nasuta was found with a prevalence of 52.9% in the Pyrenean Rock ptarmigan. Overall, we found a spatially aggregated distribution of parasites in the northern French Alps, probably due to both favourable climatic conditions for parasite cycle and high host density. Statistical analyses indicated a positive effect of altitude and latitude on C. caudinflata occurrence whereas risk factors for Eimeria sp. were the distance from urban areas and land cover. In addition, the majority of the infested birds came from areas close to ski-pistes, where human disturbance increases the susceptibility to diseases, causing stress to wildlife.

Definitive diagnosis of hookworm infection is usually based on the microscopic detection of eggs in a stool sample; however, several cases display a low or irregular egg output. Serodiagnosis can be a useful tool to identify these cases, but conventional tests do not differentiate past from active infections. The aim of this study was to obtain and apply egg yolk polyclonal immunoglobulin (IgY) antibodies to detect immune complexes (ICs) in serum samples from patients infected with hookworm. Hens were immunized with Ancylostoma ceylanicum saline extract, their eggs were collected and then IgY antibodies were extracted and purified. Antibody purity was tested by 12% sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and specificity was assessed by immunoblotting and immunofluorescence. IgY production was evaluated by kinetics enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Sandwich ELISA tested the ability of IgY to detect ICs in serum samples, from which diagnostic parameters were calculated. Antibody responses increased steadily from day 7 to 42. In the immunoblotting assay, IgY recognized two protein complexes. The immunofluorescence assay showed no staining in control samples. The sandwich ELISA presented a very high diagnostic value, with a sensitivity of 90% and a specificity of 86.7%. Our pioneer strategy highlights the potential use of egg yolk IgY as a diagnostic test to detect active hookworm infection.

Trematode transmission in aquatic habitats from molluscan intermediate host to vertebrate or invertebrate target host is typically undertaken by a free-living stage known as cercariae. Active locomotion by cercariae is a key aspect of the transmission process with the swimming speed potentially contributing to infection success. Individual cercarial species swim at different speeds but the significance of this to infection potential has not been determined. This study, using data from the scientific literature, investigates the role of swimming speed in relation to cercarial morphology, host-searching strategies and target host species. Larger cercariae swim faster than smaller ones with tail length being the principal factor controlling locomotion rates. Different cercarial morphotypes swim at different speeds, in particular, furcocercariae, with the exception of the schistosomes, being faster swimmers than mono-tailed cercariae. Host-searching behaviour has a significant influence on swimming speeds with ‘active-searching’ strategies swimming slower than those adopting ‘active-waiting’ or ‘prey mimcry’ strategies. Vertebrate-infecting cercariae swim faster than those infecting invertebrates with species targeting fish demonstrating the highest locomotion rates and those targeting arthropods the slowest speeds. The adaptions of individual cercarial swimming speeds to biological variables and their interactions with the physical processes of aquatic habitats are discussed.

Environmental toxicants are pervasive in nature, but sub-lethal effects on non-target organisms and their parasites are often overlooked. Particularly, studies on terrestrial hosts and their parasites exposed to agricultural toxicants are lacking. Here, we studied the effect of sequence and timing of sub-lethal exposures of the pyrethroid insecticide alpha-cypermethrin on parasite establishment using the tapeworm Hymenolepis diminuta and its intermediate insect host Tenebrio molitor as a model system. We exposed T. molitor to alpha-cypermethrin (LD20) before and after experimental H. diminuta infection and measured the establishment success of larval tapeworms. Also, we conducted in vitro studies quantifying the direct effect of the insecticide on parasite viability. Our results showed that there was no direct lethal effect of alpha-cypermethrin on H. diminuta cysticercoids at relevant concentrations (LD10 to LD90 of the intermediate host). However, we observed a significantly increased establishment of H. diminuta in beetles exposed to alpha-cypermethrin (LD20) after parasite infection. In contrast, parasite establishment was significantly lower in beetles exposed to the insecticide before parasite infection. Thus, our results indicate that environmental toxicants potentially impact host-parasite interactions in terrestrial systems, but that the outcome is context-dependent by enhancing or reducing parasite establishment depending on timing and sequence of exposure.