The selective retention of particles in the reticulo-rumen and in the gastrointestinal tract distal to the reticulo-rumen was studied in fistulated sheep maintained on a roughage diet. Polyethylene glycol and plastic particles of different lengths (1 and 10 mm) and densities (092, 1.03, 1.22 and 1.44 g/ml) were either fed or were introduced into the omasum. The mean retention time in the reticulo-rumen (MRTRR) of 1 mm long particles with a density of approximately 1.0 g/ml was about 67 h, that is eight times longer than the MRTRR of fluid; the heavier particles were retained only three times longer than fluid. Particles with a length of 10 mm were retained in the reticulo-rumen 19–28 h longer than 1 mm long particles of the same density. Particles with a length of 10 mm were reduced to smaller particles (0.5–4 mm) due to rumination. Multiple regression analysis indicated that particle density and particle size accounted for 59 and 28% of the total variation of MRTRR respectively. The mean retention time distal to the reticulo- rumen (MRTGut) of 1 and 10 mm long particles with a density near 1.0 g/ml was 18–19 h, similar to that of fluid (16 h). The heavier particles were retained about 3–8 h longer.

Apparent and partial digestible energy values for α-amylase (EC 3. 2. 1. 1)-resistant, retrograde starches, isolated from cooked maize and pea starches (RMS and RPS respectively), were determined in male Wistar rats (about 180 g) during a 28–29 d balance period with ten animals per treatment. The starches were provided as supplements (100 g/kg diet) to a semi-synthetic basal diet (B), and their effects on the apparent digestibilities of nitrogen and fat, and on gains of live weight, fat and lean tissue were examined. Diet B alone was the control; sucrose (Su) and Solka-floc cellulose (SFC) were also examined for reference. Apparent digestibilities for Su, SFC, RMS and RPS were 1.0, 0.16, 0.98 and 0.89 respectively. Whereas the apparent digestibilities of gross energy, N and fat in the diet were unaffected by supplementation with Su, each was decreased by supplementation with SFC, RMS and RPS. Partial digestible energy values calculated from the intakes and faecal losses of energy in the basal and supplemented diets were 15, 12.4 and 0.8 kJ/g for RMS, RPS and SFC respectively. These values were smaller than corresponding apparent digestible energy values calculated from the apparent digestibility of the supplement and its gross energy value. Only the Su and starch supplements increased the intake of apparent digestible energy and the gain of live weight. Both starches and Su increased total energy (and fat) deposition to almost similar extents. It is concluded that the resistant starches contribute significant dietary energy, enhance growth and elevate fat deposition to extents almost similar to Su.

The relationship between starch α-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) susceptibility, plasma responses and gastric emptying rates has been investigated in humans. Nine randomly chosen healthy subjects were given three carbohydrate test meals (25 g starch or equivalent glucose units): two maize starch pastes with (a) 240 (S24) or (b) 500 (S50) g amylose/kg, and a glucose solution (GS). At 30 min, in vitro starch α-amylolysis was 48 (sd 4)% for S24 and 35 (sd 4)% for S50. Test meals differed in viscosity (mPas: S24, 54000; S50, 190; GS, 4). Carbohydrates were labelled with 99mTechnetium and isotope gastric emptying was measured by external gamma counting. Carbohydrate isotopic gastric emptying patterns were exponential. Half gastric emptying time (min) was significantly (P < 0.05) shorter for S50 (19 (sd 2)) than for GS (26 (sd 2)) or S24 (29 (sd 2)). No correlation was found between half gastric emptying time and plasma response values. Values for peak insulin (pmol/l) above fasting were significantly (P < 0.05) different: GS, 306 (sd 11); S24, 227 (sd 11); S50, 187 (sd 11). It is concluded that α-amylase susceptibility of the test carbohydrates is a determining factor in the insulin response of healthy subjects, while viscosity of the test meals and gastric emptying rate have no effect.

The thermogenic, cardiovascular and metabolic responses to a 30 kJ/kg body-weight test meal were studied in eight normal-weight, healthy female subjects after a 6 or 48 h fast. There was no significant change in metabolic rate following the 48 h fast, but plasma glucose, insulin, noradrenaline and respiratory exchange ratio were all reduced, and plasma β-hydroxybutyrate was increased. Forearm blood flow was increased, with reduction in diastolic blood pressure. After the 48 h fast, there was a reduction in the metabolic rate response 40–90 min after food (control+0·54 (se 0·05), 48 h fast + 0·27 (se 0·12) kJ/min, I < 0·01), and in forearm blood flow and diastolic blood pressure responses, but increases in heart rate, blood glucose and plasma insulin responses to the ingestion of the test meal. There was no significant relationship between plasma catecholamine concentration and food ingestion or metabolic rate. Fasting induced considerable adaptation in these subjects and altered some of the physiological responses to food ingestion.

The influence of free surface area and pore size of a synthetic-fibre bag, and flow of intestinal substances into the bag, on the intestinal digestion estimates by the nylon-bag method of dry matter (DM), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), nitrogen, NDF-N and feed 15N was studied using a non-lactating cow fed on hay supplemented with barley and oats at maintenance level. The bags containing 15N-labelled ground ryegrass (Lolium perenne), barley, barley straw or rapeseed (Brassica napus) straw were introduced into the duodenum through a T-shaped cannula and collected from the faeces. Also, the disappearance of N from the bag was related to the true intestinal N digestion by comparing it with the net loss between duodenum and faeces of 15N in ryegrass introduced into the duodenum in an aqueous suspension. It was noted that the bag cloth often significantly affected both disappearance values and the subsequent chemical composition of the residues. Re-analysing part of the data as a 2x2 factorial (free surface x pore size) suggested that free surface area was often more important than pore size as a determinant of both disappearance values and chemical composition. Lower apparent (Kjeldahl N) than true (15N) feed N disappearance from the bag suggested a notable proportion of non-feed N in the residues, especially with fibrous feeds with low N. With ryegrass, 15N net loss within the intestine was lower than 15N disappearance from the bags. It was concluded that disappearance of Kjeldahl N is an underestimate of feed N disappearance from bags, but may possibly be an overestimate of the true intestinal digestion of feed N.

Ten subjects aged 19–35 years (four men and six women) underwent two measurements of 24 h energy expenditure (EE) in a whole-body respiration calorimeter, one at a temperature of 28° and one at 20°. Choice of clothing was allowed. Dietary intake was standardized and subjects were asked to follow the same pattern of activity during both measurements. Mean 24 h EE was significantly greater at the cooler temperature by 5.0 (SD 5.5) %, with individual differences ranging from 4.6% lower to 12.6% higher. The difference in EE at the two temperatures was similar during the day and the night and occurred even though subjects wore more clothes and used more bedding at 20°. No relationship was observed between response to 20° and body-weight status. In conclusion, the assumption that mild cold is unlikely to affect EE in subjects wearing normal clothing may be incorrect.

Basolateral and brush-border membranes were prepared from the intestines and kidneys of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and normotensive (WKY) rats fed on a calcium-adequate diet and assayed for their enzyme activities. In intestinal basolateral membranes the activities of Na+ K+-ATPase (EC 3.6.1.37) Ca2+-ATPase (EC 3.6.1.38) and alkaline phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.1) were lower in SHR rats when compared with WKY rats, whilst 5'-nucleotidase (EC3.1.3.5) (a marker for basolateral membranes) was unaffected. In kidney basolateral membranes all enzymes were similar in activity in SHR and WKY rats. In intestinal brush-border membranes the activities of Ca2+-ATPase and alkaline phosphatase were lower in SHR rats when compared with WKY rats, whilst microvillus aminopeptidase (EC 3.4.11.2) (a marker for brush-border membranes) was unaffected. In kidney brush-border membranes all enzymes were similar in activity in SHR and WKY rats. The blood pressures of the SHR rats were considerably higher than those of the WKY rats. When SHR rats were fed on a Ca-deficient diet the activities of Na+K+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase and alkaline phosphatase in basolateral membranes and Ca2+-ATPase and alkaline phosphatase in brush-border membranes were all increased in the intestine when compared with SHR rats fed on a Ca-adequate diet. The equivalent enzymes in the kidneys of SHR rats, and the intestines and kidneys of WKY rats, were not affected by altering the Ca in the diet. The blood pressures of SHR rats fed on a Ca-deficient diet were higher than in those fed on a Ca-adequate diet. Blood pressures of WKY rats were not affected by altering the diet in this way. The results indicate that the absorption of Ca by active mechanisms may be reduced in SHR rats compared with WKY rats. Changing the level of Ca in the diet modified both blood pressure and the activities of enzymes which catalyse active Ca transport. The implications of these results to the aetiology, and possible nutritional treatment, of essential hypertension are discussed.

Of a series of ninety-six young male Syrian Golden hamsters, 13% developed lethargy, anorexia, diarrhoea and colocolic intussusception when their diet was changed from a basal laboratory-grade rodent chow to a nutritionally complete semi-purified diet. Histologically, the colon of the hamsters with intussusception had markedly reduced mucus production. Plasma levels of gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) were reduced 80% (P < 0.01) but peptide tyrosine/tyrosine and enteroglucagon in plasma were increased 290 and 526 % respectively in hamsters with intussusception. Variations in dietary fatty acid composition had no effect but intussusception was not observed after changing the dietary carbohydrate from sucrose to starch.

Colon: Cystic fibrosis: Intussusception: Peptide hormones: Hamster

The effect of two levels of fishmeal substitution (50 (FM1) and 150 (FM2) g/kg) of a grass silage control diet (C) on the rumen digestion of organic matter and nitrogen, and the small intestinal disappearance of amino acids was examined in young growing cattle each equipped with simple PVC cannulas in the dorsal sac of the reticulo-rumen, the proximal duodenum and the terminal ileum. The silage was a primary growth of perennial ryegrass (Lnlium pevenne) (+formic acid) with a total N content of 22 g/kg dry matter (DM) (diet C). Fishmeal substitution increased this to 26 (diet FM1) and 34 (diet FM2) g/kg DM. On diets C and FM1, approximately 0.71 of digestible organic matter intake was apparently digested in the rumen, but this was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced on diet FM2 (0.60). Whilst duodenal flows of non-ammonia N and total amino acids were significantly (P < 001) increased at the highest level of fishmeal inclusion only, the synthesis of microbial N was significantly (P < 0.001) reduced by fishmeal inclusion, and feed N degradability declined progressively in response to increased fishmeal. Both levels of fishmeal addition caused a significant (P< 0.05) reduction in the fractional outflow rate of water from the rumen, and on the highest level of fishmeal significant (P< 0.05) increases in rumen ammonia concentration and rumen propionate molar proportions were observed. The net effect of the highest level of fishmeal substitution was to increase amino acid absorption from the small intestine by 0.47 compared with the control diet (P< 0.05), but due to an elevated ileal flow of amino acid no such effect was detected at the lowest level of fishmeal substitution. Composition of the absorbed amino acid fraction was relatively unaffected by the treatments imposed, despite large changes in the composition of the duodenal protein. The apparent non-linearity of response to fishmeal substitution is discussed and the amino acid supply findings are compared with the protein retention findings obtained in an earlier study by Gill et al. (1987). By two methods of calculation it was estimated that the amino acid N fraction disappearing from the small intestine was utilized with an efficiency of between 0.51 and 0.53 and no apparent effects due to diet or level of amino acid supply were detected.

Stomach contents of mice fed on a standard rodent breeding diet contained 29–733 pM-soluble non-haem-iron. A very variable percentage (3–100, mean 49·3 (se 4·7), n 37) of this Fe was rapidly (half-life < 1–2 s) available for chelation by the strong Fe(II) chelator ferrozine, with little or no further Fe being available on addition of ascorbate. Ferrozine-available Fe could be detected in the duodenal lumen at concentrations up to 60 μM in vivo and after in vitro neutralization of stomach contents. No significant changes in quantity of stomach ferrozine-available Fe or soluble non-haem-Fe occurred in mice with adaptive enhancement of Fe absorption induced by chronic hypoxia. Electron paramagnetic resonance (e.p.r.) spectroscopy of the soluble portion of mouse stomach contents demonstrated a g = 4·3 signal (rhombic Fe(III)) equivalent to up to 20 % of soluble non-haem-Fe. The signal was unaffected by addition of excess ferrozine and increased on subsequent neutralization, suggesting redistribution of Fe from other e.p.r.-silent species. Solutions of Fe-nitrilotriacetate (NTA) (a synthetic Fe chelate used as a bioavailable, model Fe solution) were found to contain both rapidly and slowly ferrozine-available Fe (after addition of ascorbate) depending on pH, NTA:Fe ratio and the presence of Ca(II) ions. Fe-ascorbate mixtures (a model solution for Fe absorption studies) also contained ferrozine-available Fe. These results suggest the presence of Fe(II), rhombic Fe(III) and other e.p.r.-silent Fe species in the soluble fraction of mouse stomach contents. The ferrozine-available (Fe(II)) fraction is not limited by the reducing power in the diet, but by binding to ligands. Neutralization with bicarbonate leads to a loss of ferrozine-available Fe and increase in rhombic Fe(III) at the expense of both ferrozine-available and other e.p.r.-silent Fe species. The ferrozine-available Fe in mouse stomach and duodenal lumen can be related to Fe species present in model solutions used for in vitro studies of mucosal uptake mechanisms.

The influence on protein accretion and whole-body protein turnover of changing dietary protein quality while maintaining constant energy intake was studied by varying the degree of lysine supplementation of a lysine-deficient barley-based diet given to growing pigs. Measurements of nitrogen metabolism and whole-body protein turnover, using both classical and 15N end-product methods following a single dose of lsqb;15N]glycine, were made in 49-kg male pigs given diets containing 109 g lysine-deficient protein/kg supplemented to make them (1) 'deficient', (2) 'adequate' and (3) 'in excess' with respect to lysine. The 15N dose and protein intake values used to calculate amino N flux from the cumulative urinary excretion of 15N in urea and ammonia were corrected respectively for apparent digestibilities of [15N]glycine and total N determined in a separate experiment in pigs fitted with simple ileal cannulas. N retention and biological value were significantly increased by lysine supplementation of the deficient diet to the 'adequate' level, but were not further increased by the higher level of supplementation. Rates of growth paralleled these changes. The poorer biological value of the unsupplemented diet 1 was shown also in a significantly higher excretion of urea N compared with diets 2 and 3. N digestibility was not markedly influenced by the level of lysine supplementation. Both whole-body protein synthesis and degradation increased markedly on 'adequate' supplementation of the diet with lysine, but did not increase further with an excess of lysine. It is concluded that the increase in protein accretion rate observed on supplementation of the diet with lysine was due to a greater increase in the rate of protein synthesis than of degradation, rather than a decrease in degradation rate.

Sulphur flow through the gut was monitored in eight adult female goats at different stages in their reproductive cycle. The amount of S transferred from the body into digesta between the mouth and the transverse duodenum was directly proportional to the amount of nitrogen retained in the body and secreted in milk. S secretion into digesta was also a function of metabolic body-weight (body-weight0.75) in non-pregnant, non-lactating goats and in pregnant goats. During lactation there was an additional S input into digesta, and S gain was directly proportional to the yield of milk N. The S was conserved by intestinal absorption and was recycled to the gut predominantly as carbon-bound (neutral) S in bile. The enterohepatic circulation may act as a mobile reserve of S, particularly of taurine.

Breast-fed infants in Bangladeshi villages were weighed at 1, 2, 6, 9 and 12 months. The concentrations of zinc and copper in the breast milk were measured and the daily intake of these elements calculated. Breast milk Zn concentration decreased over the year but was comparable with that found in developed countries. The calculated daily intake decreased from 17·7 to 8·0 μmol (10–30% of recommended dietary allowances (RDA); National Academy of Sciences, 1980). Breast milk Cu concentration also fell over the year and was lower than that reported from developed countries. Calculated daily Cu intake was 1·95–2·63 μmol (RDA 7·81–15·63 μmol). Deficiencies of trace elements may therefore be a problem in poorly nourished communities where breast feeding is continued for several years with only small amounts of additional food. Breast milk may not be adequate as the only source of infant nutrition after the first few months of life in Bangladesh.

Metallothionein contains about 30% cysteine and is a major protein in newborn rat liver. This protein and glutathione constitute two major intracellular cysteine pools in newborn rat liver. When pregnant rats were fed on a soya-bean-protein diet, low in sulphur amino acids, the hepatic glutathione levels of the dams were decreased. However, this did not affect the levels of glutathione or metallothionein in the pups. The activity of the glutathione-degrading enzyme γ-glutamyltransferase (EC 2.3.2.2) in the livers of pups was maximum at birth and gradually decreased with age when the hepatic glutathione was transported to the kidney. In the pups born from dams fed on soya-bean-protein diet the decline in the hepatic enzyme activity was delayed, suggesting a continued degradation of glutathione in the liver. These results suggest that even with a maternal nutritional deficiency of sulphur amino acids, the transfer of cysteine to the fetus is not impaired. However, the hepatic intra-organ degradation of glutathione is continued in these pups for a prolonged period after birth compared with pups born from control mothers. The increased degradation of glutathione in the liver may be essential to meet the requirement of cysteine in pups born from dams fed on the soya-bean-protein diet.

The influence of dietary lipids on the liver microsomal mixed function oxidase system and on pentobarbital-induced sleeping time was studied in rats. Giving diets containing (g/kg) 150 olive oil, 150 lard or 150 soya-bean oil for 21 d (Expt 1) increased the cytochrome P-450 content in the order: olive oil < lard < soya-bean oil. When diets containing (g/kg) 150 lard, 150 soya-bean oil, 150 sardine oil or an equal mixture of 50 of each oil were given for 15 d (Expt 2), the cytochrome P-450 content and aminopyrine N-demethylase activity were significantly higher in the sardine-oil and mixed-oil groups than in the lard group, and the activity of aminopyrine N-demethylase was also significantly higher in the soya-bean oil group compared with the lard group. A significantly higher activity of NADPH-cytochrome c reductase (EC 1.6.2.5) was observed in the sardine-oil group than in the other three groups. Aniline hydroxylase activity and cytochrome b5 content remained unchanged in all the groups. Pentobarbital-induced sleeping time measured on day 15 (Expt 2) varied inversely with the changes in cytochrome P-450 content and aminopyrine N-demethylase activity in the three single-fat groups, but not in the mixed-oil group, reflecting liver microsomal metabolic activity for pentobarbital in vivo. From these results, it appears that high intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids (18:2n-6, 18:3n-3, 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3) stimulate the liver microsomal mixed function oxidase system.

The relations between the urinary excretion of acid-soluble peptide (ASP)-form amino acids, the rate of whole body protein synthesis and plasma immunoreactive insulin-like growth factor-1/somatomedin C concentration were investigated in rats. The urinary ASP-form leucine plus valine excretion correlated well with the rate of whole body protein synthesis and with the plasma immunoreactive insulin-like growth factor-1 concentration. The results provide further evidence for the hypothesis that urinary excretion of ASP is an excellent index of the status of protein metabolism in animals.

Supplements of evening primrose oil (Oenothera biennis), which contains at least 72% linoleic (18:2n−6) and 7% γ-linolenic (18:3 n−6) acids (expressed as % fatty acid methyl esters) were given to sixteen cystic fibrosis patients for a period of 12 months. Clinical observations showed no significant changes in patients' weights or respiratory function throughout. Linoleic acid levels in plasma and erythrocyte membranes increased significantly during the first 6 months but this increase was not sustained at its initial level. After supplementation was discontinued reversion to baseline (low) levels occurred within 4 months. Levels of plasma prostaglandins (PG) and urinary PG metabolites varied among individuals over a wide range, and urinary PGF2α metabolites fell during the supplementation. There was a significant fall in sweat sodium concentrations after 6 weeks of supplementation, but sweat chloride was unchanged. It is not known whether the effect of essential fatty acids on sweat Na+ reflects changes in cell membrane conformation or if there is a direct effect on Na+ pump activity.

The voluntary intake (VI) of separated leaf and stem fractions of a grass and legume (Panicum maximum and Lablab purpureus respectively) was determined using Hereford steers fistulated at the rumen and oesophagus. VI of leaf fractions was higher than that of the stem fraction (8·23 ν. 3·67 kg/d, P < 0·001) while that for the legume diets was higher than for the grass diets (6·65 ν. 5·22 kg/d, P < 0·05). The total number of eating chews per day was higher on the leaf than stem fraction (1·6 × 104 ν. 9·8 × 103, P < 0·05). The mean number of rumination chews (2·4 × 104) was similar (P > 0·05) for all four diets. The mean resistance of large particles (LP, i.e. retained on a 1·18 mm sieve during wet sieving) to breakdown (chews per g LP breakdown) during eating was lower for leaf than stem fractions (8–4 ν 23·7) and lower for the grass than legume diets (10–5 ν 21·6). The mean resistance to breakdown of LP by rumination (chews per g LP breakdown) was lower in leaf than in stem fractions (8·2 ν. 13·2, P < 0·01) and higher in grass than in legume (12·5 ν 9·0, P < 0·05). The resistance of LP to breakdown during rumination was higher than during eating for the grass diets, but was lower for the legume. Fractional passage rates (FPR) of small particles (i.e. passing through a 1·18 mm sieve during wet sieving) from the reticulo-rumen were negatively related to dimensions of particles, with greater ease of outflow for legume than for grass particles of the same length or diameter. When corrected for content of cellulase-indigestible fibre, FPR of small particles of leaf was greater than for small stem particles. It was concluded that VI of tropical forages was associated with the resistance of LP to breakdown by chewing during both eating and rumination and that the patterns of escape of small particles from the reticulo-rumen were only partially explicable in terms of particle dimensions, and that other properties of the particles may be of importance.

Twenty-three British Friesian bull calves at approximately 7 d of age were allocated to one of four treatments: controls untreated (five calves), a group (Clen) given 1 mg clenbuterol/kg diet (five calves), a group (GH) given a daily subcutaneous injection of 3.5 mg bovine pituitary growth hormone (GH) (five calves) and a group (Clen + GH) given a combination of clenbuterol as in the Clen group with GH as in the GH group (seven calves). All calves were given milk-substitute at levels adjusted weekly according to metabolic live weight. The animals were slaughtered over the weight range 150–170 kg. Samples of semimembranosus and triceps muscles were excised a t slaughter. Treatment with GH produced approximately a threefold increase in mean daily serum GH concentration. Calves given Clen + GH were heaviest a t slaughter and the combined treatment produced a significantly higher (P < 0-01) feed conversion ratio. Administration of clenbuterol either alone or in combination with GH increased the cross-sectional area of both fast twitch glycolytic (FG), and fast twitch oxidative glycolytic (FOG) fibres in both muscles. In contrast GH produced little change in fibre size in semimembranosus muscle, although FOG fibres in triceps were slightly larger than in controls. Neither Clen nor GH resulted in any change in fibre percentage frequency in either muscle. Treatments involving clenbuterol produced a significant decrease in muscle glycogen concentration. Muscles from all three treatment groups tended to show small increases in protein and RNA concentration compared with the controls. Muscles from animals treated with GH alone exhibited an increase in DNA concentration not seen in muscles from the two other treatment groups. Overall, the differential response to the two agents suggested that clenbuterol does not mediate its effects via the GH axis, and that an additive response in terms of protein anabolism may be achieved from the use of a combination of clenbuterol plus GH.