This exploratory study investigated the effects of early vs. delayed time-restricted eating (TRE) plus caloric restriction (CR) on body weight, body composition, and cardiometabolic parameters in adults with overweight and obesity. Adults (20 to 40 years) were randomized to 1 of 3 groups for 8 weeks: early TRE (eTRE; 8:00-16:00) plus CR, delayed TRE (dTRE; 12:00-20:00) plus CR, or only CR (CR; 8:00-20:00). All groups were prescribed a 25% energy deficit relative to daily energy requirements. Thirteen participants completed the study in the eTRE and CR groups, and eleven in the dTRE group (n=37). After the interventions, there was no significant difference between the three groups for any of the outcomes. Compared to baseline, significant decreases were observed in body weight (eTRE group: -4.2 kg; 95% CI, -5.6 to -2.7; dTRE group: -4.8 Kg; 95% CI, -5.9 to -3.7; CR: -4.0 kg; 95% CI, -5.9 to -2.1), fat mass (eTRE group: -2.9 kg; 95% CI, -3.9 to -1.9; dTRE group: -3.6 Kg; 95% CI, -4.6 to -2.5; CR: -3.1 kg; 95% CI, -4.3 to -1.8), and fasting glucose levels (eTRE group: -4 mg/dL; 95% CI, -8 to -1; dTRE group: -2 mg/dL; 95% CI, -8 to 3; CR: -3 mg/dL; 95% CI, -8 to 2). In a free-living setting, TRE with a caloric deficit, regardless of the time of day, promotes similar benefits in weight loss, body composition and cardiometabolic parameters. However, given the exploratory nature of our study, further investigation is needed to confirm these findings.

While there is growing interest in the link between diet and psychological health, there is a surprising lack of studies investigating the precise associations between nutrient-rich foods (such as fruit and vegetables) versus nutrient-poor foods (such as energy-dense savoury and sweet snacks), and psychological health. Similarly, the psychological processes underpinning the relationship between dietary intake and psychological health remain unclear. Hence, the present study aimed to explore the relationship between dietary consumption and psychological health, with cognitive processes as a theoretical mediator. This cross-sectional online study included 428 healthy adults (53% female; mean age= 39.7, SD= 13.0), with participants completing a range of validated questionnaires measuring dietary habits and psychological health. Stepwise multiple regression revealed that more frequent consumption of fruit was associated with reduced symptoms of depression (β = -.109, p = 0.025) and greater positive psychological wellbeing (β = .187, p < 0.001). Conversely, more frequent savoury snacking was associated with increased anxiety (β = .127, p = 0.005). Further, mediation analyses revealed that more frequent consumption of savoury snacks was associated with increased symptoms of depression, stress, anxiety, and reduced psychological wellbeing, via an increase in cognitive failures (ps < 0.001). These results provide new insights on the independent associations between certain types of food and psychological health, and the psychological mechanisms that may mediate these. Further work is now required to establish causality and determine whether these may represent modifiable dietary targets that can directly (and indirectly) influence our psychological health.

High sodium diet is one of the leading behavioural risks of disease identified in the Singapore Burden of Disease Study. We aim to estimate the cost attributable to a high sodium diet in Singapore in 2019 from a societal perspective by employing a prevalence-based approach in cost-of-illness studies. This was done by extracting national-level healthcare data and population-attributable fractions by sex and age. Costs included direct and indirect costs from inpatient treatment and productivity losses. In 2019, the annual societal cost attributable to a high sodium diet was conservatively estimated to be US$262 million (95% uncertainty interval (UI): 218-359 million). At least US$67.8 million (95% UI: 48.4-120 million) and US$194 million (95% UI: 153-274 million) could be saved on healthcare and indirect costs respectively if the daily sodium intake of Singaporeans was reduced to an average of 3g. Overall, males had higher costs compared to females at US$221 million (95% UI: 174-312 million) and US$41.1 million (95% UI: 33.5-61.7 million) respectively. Productivity loss from foregone wages due to premature mortality had the largest cost at US$191 million (95% UI: 150-271 million). Cardiovascular diseases had the largest healthcare expenditure at US$61.4 million (95% UI: 41.6-113 million), driven by ischemic heart disease at US$41.0 million (95% UI: 21.4-88.9 million). Our study found that reducing sodium intake could reduce future healthcare expenditures and productivity losses. This result is vital for policy evaluation in a rapidly ageing society like Singapore, where the burden of diseases associated with high sodium diet is expected to increase.

The long-term impact of cycling on health status, eating habits, physical activity, and the lifestyle of former combat sports athletes is still insufficiently explored. Therefore, a novel questionnaire in English, Portuguese, Spanish and Croatian language was constructed. To determine the reliability and the content/face validity, a total of 110 participants filled the questionnaire on two occasions. With the majority of ICC values above 0.75, the questionnaire items were shown to be very stable. Additionally, according to Kappa values, the questionnaire has fair test‑retest reliability, with only one coefficient being labeled as poor (Q40 in ESP). All questionnaire sub-scales showed moderate to very good internal consistency when the overall sample was observed (α ranging from 0.605 to 0.802). Poor α values were found only in GSLTPAQ for CRO and ESP samples. Wilcoxon’s Signed Rank Test showed significant differences only in the MEQd sub-scale scores (overall: p = 0.002, ES = -0.208 [moderate]; CRO: p = 0.005, ES = 0.303 [moderate]). It can be concluded that the newly developed questionnaire had strong test-retest reliability. Further validity research in a larger sample of former combat sports athletes should be considered.

Sleep habits are directly related to risk of obesity and this relationship may be partly mediated through food choices and eating behaviour. Short sleep duration, impaired sleep quality and suboptimal sleep timing are all implicated in weight gain and adverse cardiometabolic health, at least partly mediated through their associations with diet quality. Short term sleep restriction leads to increased energy intake, and habitually short sleepers report dietary intakes that indicate a less healthy diet compared to adequate sleepers. Evidence is emerging that sleep extension interventions in short sleepers may reduce intake of sugars and overall energy intake. Poor sleep quality, night shift work patterns and social jetlag are also associated with lower diet quality and consumption of energy-dense foods. Incorporating sleep advice into weight management interventions may be more effective than energy-restricted diets and exercise advice alone. However, there are a lack of intervention studies that aim to lengthen sleep, improve sleep quality, or adjust irregular sleep timing to investigate the impact on dietary intakes and eating behaviour in participants aiming to lose weight or maintain weight loss. Finally, future research should take account of individual characteristics such as age, sex, life stage, and changing working practices when designing combined lifestyle interventions including sleep behaviour change for health and wellbeing.

Millet is a grain high in polyphenols and antioxidants, which are bioactive compounds known to influence blood glucose response. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of finger millet muffin and wheat muffin on glycaemic response (GR), insulin response (IR), gastric emptying (GE) and satiety in healthy individuals and people with prediabetes. In a single blind randomised controlled crossover trial at Oxford Brookes Centre for Nutrition and Health, 15 healthy individuals and 14 individuals with prediabetes were recruited between May and December 2017. The participants’ GR (3 hours), IR (3 hours), GE (4 hours) and satiety (4 hours) were measured before and after the consumption of muffins. A mixed method analysis of variance was used to compare GE and the incremental area under the curve (iAUC) for GR and IR between the participant groups and muffins. There was a significant interaction between participants and muffins on IR iAUC at 180 min (p = 0.042). A significant effect of muffins was found on the GR peak (p = 0.013). The millet muffin decreased the GR peak and IR iAUC compared with the wheat muffin in participants with prediabetes. A significant interaction between participants and muffins for GE ascension time Tasc (p = 0.017) was observed; with no effect of muffins on satiety AUC in the participant groups. This study suggested that polyphenol and fibre-rich finger millet may have the potential to influence the management of prediabetes.

This study evaluated the association between dietary patterns, Gas-Related Symptoms (GRS) and their impact on quality of life (QoL) in a representative sample (n=936) of the French adult population. During the 2018-2019 “Comportements et Consommations Alimentaires en France” (CCAF) survey (Behaviors and Food Consumption in France), online evaluation of GRS in adult participants was performed using the validated Intestinal Gas Questionnaire (IGQ), which captures the perception of GRS and their impact on QoL via 6 symptom dimensions scores (range 0-100; 100=worse) and a global score (mean of the sum of the 6 symptom dimensions scores). Socio-demographics, lifestyle parameters and dietary habits (7-day e-food diary) were also collected online. Quality of diet was determined using the NRF9.3 score (range 0-900; 900=best). Univariate and multivariate linear regression models were applied to identify factors associated with IGQ global score. K-means was used to identify clusters of subjects based on their dietary records. Data from 936 adults who completed both the IGQ and the food diary showed a mean (SD) IGQ global score of 11.9 (11.2). Younger age and female gender were associated with a higher IGQ global score. Only 7% of subjects reported no symptom at all and nearly 30% of study participants reported a high impact of GRS on their QoL. Two dietary clusters were identified: cluster1, characterized by a higher consumption of fruits and vegetables, lower sugars intake and higher NRF9.3 score and cluster 2, characterized by higher intake of sugars, lower intake in dietary fibers and lower NRF9.3 score. The IGQ global score was lower in cluster1 and higher in cluster2 vs. the total sample average (p<0.001). Prevalence of GRS in the French adult population is high and is associated with impaired QoL and dietary patterns. A change in food habits towards healthier patterns could help reducing the burden of GRS.

Resistant starch (RS) has received increased attention due to its potential health benefits. This study was aimed to investigate the effects of dietary corn RS on immunological characteristics of broilers. A total of 320 broiler chicks were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments: normal corn-soybean (NC) diet, corn starch (CS) diet group, 4%, 8% and 12% resistant starch (RS) diet groups. This trial lasted for 42 days. The relative weights of spleen, thymus and bursa, the concentrations of NO and IL-4 in plasma at 21 day of age, as well as the activities of TNOS and iNOS in plasma at 21 and 42 day of age showed positive linear responses (P < 0.05) to the increasing dietary RS level. Meanwhile, compared with the birds from the NC group at 21 day of age, birds fed 4%RS, 8%RS and 12%RS diets exhibited higher (P < 0.05) relative weight of bursa, and concentrations of NO and IFN-γ in plasma. Birds fed 4%RS and 8%RS diets showed higher (P < 0.05) number of IgA-producing cells in jejunum. While compared with birds from the NC group at 42 day of age, birds fed 12%RS diet showed higher (P < 0.05) relative weight of spleen, and activities of TNOS and iNOS in plasma. These findings suggested that dietary corn RS supplementation can improve immune function in broilers.

The aim of the study was to investigate the association between pre-gestational carbohydrate quality index (CQI) and the incidence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM). Data from the “Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra” (SUN) cohort were used, which includes 3,827 women who notified at least one pregnancy between December 1999 and December 2019. We used a validated semi-quantitative 136-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to evaluate dietary exposures at baseline and at 10-year follow-up. The CQI was defined by four criteria: glycaemic index, whole-grain/ total-grain carbohydrate, dietary fibre intake and solid/total carbohydrate ratio. We fitted generalized estimating equations with repeated measurements of the CQI to assess its relationship with incident GDM. A total of 6,869 pregnancies and 202 new cases of incident GDM were identified. The inverse association between the global quality of carbohydrate and the development of GDM was not statistically significant: Odds Ratio (OR) the highest vs. the lowest CQI category: 0.67, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.40-1.10, p for trend = 0.10. Participants at the highest CQI category and with daily carbohydrate amounts ≥50% of total energy intake had the lowest incidence of GDM (OR= 0.29 (95% CI 0.09-0.89)) compared to those with the lowest quality (lowest CQI) and quantity (≤40%). Pre-conceptional quality of carbohydrate was not significantly associated with GDM. Further studies are needed to overcome the limitations of our study. Those studies should jointly consider the quality and the quantity of dietary carbohydrates, as the quality might be of importance, especially in women with a higher intake of carbohydrates.

Several amino acids can stimulate milk synthesis in mammary epithelial cells (MECs), however, the regulatory role of isoleucine (Ile) and underlying molecular mechanism remain poorly understood. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the regulatory effects of Ile on milk protein and fat synthesis in MECs and reveal the mediation mechanism of Brahma-related gene 1 (BRG1) on this regulation. Ile dose-dependently affected milk protein and fat synthesis, mTOR phosphorylation, SREBP-1c expression and maturation, and BRG1 protein expression in bovine MECs. PI3K inhibition by LY294002 treatment blocked the stimulation of Ile on BRG1 expression. BRG1 knockdown and gene activation experiments showed that it mediated the stimulation of Ile on milk protein and fat synthesis, mTOR phosphorylation, and SREBP-1c expression and maturation in MECs. ChIP-PCR analysis detected that BRG1 bound to the promoters of mTOR and SREBP-1c, and ChIP-qPCR further detected that these binding were increased by Ile stimulation. In addition, BRG1 positively regulated the binding of H3K27ac to these two promoters, while it negatively affected the binding of H3K27me3 to these promoters. BRG1 knockdown blocked the stimulation of Ile on these two gene expression. The expression of BRG1 was higher in mouse mammary gland in the lactating period, compared with that in the puberty or dry period. Taken together, these experimental data reveal that Ile stimulates milk protein and fat synthesis in MECs via the PI3K-BRG1-mTOR/SREBP-1c pathway.

Iron deficiency is the leading cause of anemia. In Argentina, the prevalence of anemia and iron deficiency is very high; for that reason, the Argentine Society of Pediatrics recommends daily ferrous sulfate supplementation as a preventive treatment strategy. Alternatively, weekly ferrous sulfate supplementation has also been shown to be effective for anemia prevention. Excess iron could be related to oxidative stress, which may in turn cause cytomolecular damage. Both can be prevented with vitamin E supplementation. We evaluated the effect of both daily and weekly ferrous sulfate supplementation combined with two doses of vitamin E on cell viability, oxidative stress and cytomolecular damage in peripheral blood cultured in vitro. The experimental design included the following groups: untreated negative control, two vitamin E controls (8.3 and 16.6 µg/ml), weekly ferrous sulfate supplementation (0.55 mg/ml) with each vitamin E dose, daily ferrous sulfate supplementation (0.14 mg/ml) with each vitamin E dose, and a positive control. Daily ferrous sulfate supplementation decreased cell viability and increased the levels of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation and cytomolecular damage (P <0.5) compared with the weekly supplementation, probably due to the excess iron observed in the former. Vitamin E seemed to reduce ferrous sulfate-induced oxidative stress and genomic damage.

Technology-enabled approaches to conducting 24-hour dietary recalls (24HR) may reduce dietary assessment bottlenecks in low-resource settings. However, few studies have assessed their performance relative to conventional pen-and-paper interview (PAPI) approaches and none have validated performance against a benchmark (e.g. weighed food record [WFR]) in a low and middle-income country (LMIC). This study assessed relative accuracy and cost-effectiveness of INDDEX24, a technology-enabled approach to conducting 24HR, compared to a PAPI approach and against an observer WFR. Women aged 18-49 years from northern Viet Nam (n=234) were randomly assigned to be interviewed using INDDEX24 or PAPI 24HR following a WFR. The two one-sided T-test approach assessed the equivalence of each recall modality to the benchmark. Difference-in-differences analysis compared the recall-benchmark results across modalities. Cost per percentage point of accuracy for INDDEX24 and PAPI was derived from accuracy results and the cost to conduct the 24HRs. The PAPI and INDDEX24 24HRs were statistically equivalent to the WFR for all nutrients except vitamin A. INDDEX24 diverged significantly less than PAPI from the WFR for iron (0.9 v. -1.3 mg) and PAPI diverged less for protein (-3.7 v. 7.9 grams). At the individual level, 26% of PAPI and 32% of INDDEX24 respondents had energy intakes within +/- 10% of the WFR. INDDEX24 cost $111,004 and the PAPI $120,483 (USD 2019), making INDDEX24 more cost-effective across most indicators. INDDEX24 was an accurate and cost-effective method for assessing dietary intake in the study context and represents a preferred alternative to PAPI 24HRs in Viet Nam and other LMICs.

Improving dietary reporting among people living with obesity is challenging as many factors influence reporting accuracy. Reactive reporting may occur in response to dietary recording but little is known about how image-based methods influence this process. Using a 4-day image-based mobile food record (mFRTM), this study aimed to identify demographic and psychosocial correlates of measurement error and reactivity bias, among adults with BMI 25-40kg/m2. Participants (n=155, aged 18-65y) completed psychosocial questionnaires, and kept a 4-day mFRTM. Energy expenditure (EE) was estimated using ≥4 days of hip-worn accelerometer data, and energy intake (EI) was measured using mFRTM. Energy intake: energy expenditure ratios were calculated, and participants in the highest tertile were considered to have Plausible Intakes. Negative changes in EI according to regression slopes indicated Reactive Reporting. Mean EI was 72% (SD=21) of estimated EE. Among participants with Plausible Intakes, mean EI was 96% (SD=13) of estimated EE. Higher BMI (OR 0.81, 95%CI 0.72-0.92) and greater need for social approval (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.10-0.96), were associated with lower likelihood of Plausible Intakes. Estimated EI decreased by 3% per day of recording (IQR -14%,6%) among all participants. The EI of Reactive Reporters (n=52) decreased by 17%/day (IQR -23%,-13%). A history of weight loss (>10kg) (OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.5-7.8), and higher percentage of daily energy from protein (OR 1.1, 95%CI 1.0-1.2) were associated with greater odds of Reactive Reporting. Identification of reactivity to measurement, as well as Plausible Intakes, is recommended in community-dwelling studies to highlight and address sources of bias.

Development from early conceptus to a complex, multi-cellular organism is a highly ordered process that is dependent on an adequate supply of nutrients. During this process, the pattern of organ growth is robust, driven by a genetic blueprint and matched to anticipated body mass with high precision and with built-in physiological reserve capacity. This apparent canalisation of the developmental process is particularly sensitive to variation in environmental stimuli, such as inappropriate drug or hormone exposure, or pattern of nutrient delivery. Significant variation in any of these factors can profoundly affect fetal and neonatal growth patterns, with later detriment for physiological function and/or reserve capacity of the resultant adult, with potential health impact. This paradigm shift in science has become known as the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Over the last 30 years, many animal and clinical studies have vastly expanded our fundamental knowledge of developmental biology, particularly in the context of later effects on health. In this horizons article, we discuss DOHaD through the lens of nutritional quality (e.g., micronutrient, amino-acid, non-starch polysaccharide intake). The concept of ‘Quality’ was considered undefinable by Robert Persig in his book, ‘Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. Here, development and the art of nutritional maintenance will define quality in terms of the pattern of nutrient intake, the quality of development and how each interact to influence later health outcomes.

This study evaluated the association between inflammatory diets as measured by the dietary inflammatory index (DII), and inflammation biomarkers, and the development of preeclampsia among the Chinese population. We followed the reporting guidelines of the STROBE statement for observational studies. A total of 466 preeclampsia cases aged over 18 years were recruited between March 2016 and June 2019, and 466 healthy controls were 1:1 ratio matched by age (± 3 years), week of gestation (± 1 week), and gestational diabetes mellitus. The energy-adjusted DII (E-DII) was computed based on dietary intake assessed using a 79-item semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Inflammatory biomarkers were analyzed by ELISA kits. The mean E-DII scores were -0.65 ± 1.58 for cases and -1.19 ± 1.47 for controls (P value <0.001). E-DII scores positively correlated with IFN-γ (rs = 0.194, P value = 0.001) and IL-4 (rs = 0.135, P value = 0.021). After multivariable adjustment, E-DII scores were positively related to preeclampsia risk (P trend <0.001). The highest tertile of E-DII was 2.18 times the lowest tertiles (95% CI = 1.52, 3.13). The odds of preeclampsia increased by 30% (95% CI= 18%, 43%, P value <0.001) for each E-DII score increase. The preeclampsia risk was positively associated with IL-2 (OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.11), IL-4 (OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.03, 1.54) and TGF-β (OR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.06, 1.29). Therefore, proinflammatory diets, corresponding to higher IL-2, IL-4 and TGF-β levels, were associated with increased preeclampsia risk.

Linoleic acid (LA) has a two-sided effect with regards to serum cholesterol lowering and pro-inflammation, although whether this fatty acid reduces serum cholesterol and the development of atherosclerosis under high-cholesterol conditions has yet to be ascertained. In this study, we examine the effects of dietary LA on reducing serum cholesterol and atherosclerosis development under high-cholesterol conditions. Male and female apolipoprotein E-deficient (Apo E-/-) mice were fed AIN-76-based diets containing 10% saturated fatty acids and 0.04 % cholesterol (SFA), 10% LA and 0.04% low cholesterol (LALC), or 10% LA and 0.1% high cholesterol (LAHC) for 9 weeks. The results revealed significant reduction in serum cholesterol levels and aortic lesions with increasing levels of pro-inflammatory biomarkers (urinary isoprostane and aortic MCP-1 mRNA) in male and female LALC groups compared with those in the SFA groups (P < 0.05). Furthermore, whereas there were significant increases in the serum cholesterol levels and aortic lesions (P < 0.05), there was no difference in aortic MCP-1 mRNA levels in male and female LAHC groups compared with those in the LALC groups. A high dietary intake of cholesterol eliminated the serum cholesterol-lowering activity of LA but had no significant effect on aortic inflammation in either male or female ApoE-/- mice. The inhibitory effect of LA on arteriosclerosis is cancelled by a high-cholesterol diet due to a direct increase in serum cholesterol levels. Accordingly, serum cholesterol levels might represent a more prominent pathogenic factor than aortic inflammation in promoting the development of atherosclerosis.

The aim of the study was to compare the efficacy of daily versus weekly oral vitamin D3 therapy in radiological healing of nutritional rickets. Children 6 months to 12 years (n=132) diagnosed with nutritional rickets were randomized into three groups (n=44) Group A- 2000IU daily vitamin D3 for 12 weeks, B- 60,000 IU weekly for 3 weeks, C- 60,000 IU weekly for 6 weeks. Serum calcium, phosphorus, 25 OH)D, parathyroid hormone and X-ray score were estimated at baseline and 12 weeks (endline). The proportion of children who achieved complete radiological healing at endline were compared between three groups by Chi square and delta change in laboratory parameters by ANOVA (parametric data) or Kruskal Wallis test (non-parametric data), respectively. Baseline 25(OH)D ≤20 ng/mL was seen in 119 (90.2%), hyperparathyroidism in 90 (68.8%) and hypocalcemia in 96 (72.7%). A total of 120/132 children completed the study. Complete radiological healing seen in 30 (75%) in group A, 23 (60.5%) in group B and 26 (61.9%) in group C; P=0.15, with comparable endline x-ray scores; P=0.31. The median (IQR) delta x-ray score (baseline-endline) was 7 (4,9), 5 (2.25, 6) and 6 (4,7) in groups A, B and C respectively; P=0.019. Median (IQR) 25(OH)D endline levels in groups A, B and C were 50.0 (26.5, 66.5), 42.1 (28.4, 54.4) and 53.5 (33.7, 71.2) ng/mL, respectively; P=0.045. Radiological scores were comparable at end line among daily and weekly vitamin D groups with greater change from baseline in daily supplemented group.

Adipocyte expansion through adipogenesis can offset the adverse metabolic effects of obesity. Nigella sativa(NS)(black seed) oil is shown to have therapeutic features in the management of obesity. NS oil might have beneficial changes in obese populations through mediating serum levels of adipogenesis-related parameters and relative transcriptional gene-diet interactions(nutrigenomics), though no previous studies assessed this mechanism in overweight/obese participants. This study assessed the effects of NS oil supplements on blood concentration and mRNA expression levels of TNF-α, PPAR-γ, and serum adiponectin and expression of AdipoR1, as major adipogenesis and obesity-related parameters, in overweight/obese women using a crossover design. Eligible women were randomized to receive either NS oil supplements(2000mg/day) or placebo. Two periods of interventions (8 weeks in each) were cross-changed by a 4-week washout period. An individualized diet plan without calorie-deficits was given to participants to match their energy/macronutrient intakes. The Pkcross procedure and intention-to-treat analysis were performed using Stata. Cohen’s d(d) was estimated to measure the magnitude of the effects. Forty-six participants were included. NS oil capsules reduced transcription levels[(d=-2.31), P<0.001], and blood concentrations of TNF-α[(d=-0.29), P<0.001]. AdipoR1 expression (d=2.24, P<0.001) and serum adiponectin (d=0.88, P<0.001) showed a significant augmentation with a medium-high effect size, as did gene expression (d=0.69, P<0.001) and serum levels of PPAR-γ (d=0.97, P<0.001). There was a moderate but significant decrease in body weight (d=0.6, P<0.001). The present beneficial findings would provide strong information for future nutrigenomics/clinical trial studies assessing the role of NS in the management of obesity and other comorbidities.