According to interpersonal theories on depression, the type of interaction between depression-prone subjects and their social environment plays a causal role in the development and course of depression (e.g. Coyne et al.). So far, interpersonal theories have been tackled mostly by psychometrical methods. However, non-verbal behaviour plays an important role in human social interactions. It is assumed that 60-65% of human communication is non-verbal. Ethological observations have shown that non-verbal interpersonal behaviour of depressed subjects, as assessed prior to treatment, is related to treatment-response or subsequent course of depression. These results are in line with an interpersonal approach of depression.

Advances towards the understanding of the etiological mechanisms involved in mood disorders provide interesting yet diverse hypotheses and promising models. In this context, molecular genetics has now been widely incorporated into genetic epidemiological research in psychiatry. Affective disorders and, in particular, bipolar affective disorder (BPAD) have been examined in many molecular genetic studies which have covered a large part of the genome, specific hypotheses such as mutations have also been studied. Most recent studies indicate that several chromosomal regions may be involved in the aetiology of BPAD. Other studies have reported the presence of anticipation in BPAD. This phenomenon describes the increase in clinical severity and decrease in age of onset observed in successive generations. This mode of transmission correlates with the presence of specific mutations (Trinucleotide Repeat Sequences) and may represent a genetic factor involved in the transmission of the disorder. In parallel to these new developments in molecular genetics, the classical genetic epidemiology, represented by twin, adoption and family studies, provided additional evidence in favour of the genetic hypothesis in mood disorders. Moreover, these methods have been improved through models to test the gene-environment interactions. While significant advances have been made in this major field of research, it appears that integrative models, taking into account the interactions between biological (genetic) factors and social (psychosocial environment) variables offer the most reliable way to approach the complex mechanisms involved in the etiology and outcome of mood disorders.

Heroin has been prescribed in England for the treatment of heroin addiction for almost 100 years. For many years, England was almost the only country where this occurred, and the British system was consequently the subject of international curiosity. In spite of this long history, very little research has been carried out locally, and until recently, there were no guidelines as to best practice. In 1965, it was decided that only doctors with a Home Office license could prescribe heroin. Since that time, the proportion of opiate addicts treated with heroin has greatly diminished, as has the number of doctors willing to prescribe. One doctor in particular remained an enthusiastic proponent of heroin prescription. His claims impressed some Swiss clinicians, who proceeded to establish a multicentre trial in Switzerland. This was followed by a similar trial in the Netherlands. These trials apparently indicated that a proportion of treatment-resistant opiate addicts could respond well to heroin, although the researchers' conclusions have been disputed. The National Treatment Agency in England is now developing guidelines for good practice based on this new information and is planning to set up some pilot sites. It is likely that practise in England will remain somewhat different from continental practice, particularly with respect to long-term supervised injecting. It is unclear how much funding will be released to support heroin prescription. Without adequate funding, it is likely to disappear.

This paper reviews the relationship between cholesterol and psychological functioning. Possibly a relationship exists between the lowering of cholesterol, low serum cholesterol concentration and mood and/or impulse control disorders. This might be associated with a disregulated cerebral serotonin metabolism. These hypotheses are based on (meta-analyses of) epidemiologic research investigating the lowering of cholesterol. One of the findings was an increased mortality due to suicide, homicide and accidents. Much is still unknown about the matters mentioned above. However, recommendations for research and clinical psychiatric practice are formulated.

Toxicology is one of the eldest areas of special attention in medicine and pharmacy. In the past, forensic toxicology was the most important part, but nowadays, at least in the Netherlands, the clinical, occupational and environmental toxicology have the centre of attention.

The brain plays its own role in the clinical toxicology. There the intoxication can take place, it can be the basis of the peripheral symptoms of the intoxication or it can be the cause of the intoxication, e.g. at a suicidal attempt or the hospital addiction syndrome.

The somatic treatment of an intoxicated patient includes in the first place the stabilization of the patient (cardio-vascular, ventilation and central effects); then the removal of the poison from the surroundings and out of the patient by different suitable methods and finally the symptomatic treatment, sometimes with antidotes.

In the Netherlands, hardly any intoxication is fatal, when the patient arrives in the hospital in time, or euthanasia took place on purpose.

Recently, some investigators have reported blunted natural killer cell activity (NKCA) in patients with major depression. In addition, there were some reports on negative relationships between NKCA and the occurence of negative life events. In order to replicate the above findings, the present study investigates NKCA and negative life events in 11 normal and 35 unipolar (minor, simple major, melancholic) depressed subjects. NKCA has been determined by all subjects. They completed the Questionnaire on Recently Experienced Events with scores on number and impact factor of events related to a) illness, b) working conditions, c) social relationships, d) housing problems, e) loss of possession. Depressed subjects reported higher scores on number and/or impact factor of events related to illness, social relationships and housing problems. In our investigation NKCA was significantly blunted in depressed subjects and, particularly in melancholies. So NKCA is negative correlated to the severity of depression. We were unable to detect any significant relationship between NKCA, and life events ( number of impact factors ), Our results do not corroborate the thesis that life events may affect immune function, as assessed by NKCA.

This article describes the use of non-invasive magnetic resonance (MR) methods for the characterization and monitoring of the pathophysiology of experimental brain injury in laboratory animals as a function of time and treatment. The impact of MR in brain research is primarily due to its non-invasive nature, thereby enabling repeated measurements in long-term studies, and due to the type of information that it provides. MR imaging (MRI) enables the measurement of the morphology/anatomy as well as the functional status of tissues under in vivo conditions. Compared to other in vivo imaging modalities, MRI has a high spatial resolution and allows for a remarkable soft tissue differentiation. MR spectroscopy (MRS) provides information on the biochemical/metabolic status of tissues. MR methods which have proven valuable in animal studies, can be readily translated to the clinical situation where MR-based diagnosis and treatment planning play a rapidly increasing role.

After a short introduction into the principles of MR, we will illustrate the remarkable versatility of MR in research on brain injury from recent animal studies. Examples will be mainly drawn from experiments on early injury in focal cerebral ischemia and from research on mechanical brain trauma and excitotoxic lesions. The article ends with a brief description of the perspectives of MR in neuropsychiatry.

Peripheral markers of psychiatric illness provide a potentially important window into the pathophysiology of a number of psychiatric illnesses. Direct access to pathophysiological processes is fraught with difficulty. However, receptor-regulated second messenger-mediated calcium shifts are an accessible and practical method by which to examine changes in a clinical population. This is possible because platelets and neurons share some physiological features. The platelet intracellular calcium response to receptor stimulation has previously been used as a peripheral marker of psychiatric illness across a range of neurotransmitters, including serotonin, dopamine and glutamate. This review considers the specificity and selectivity of this response and its use in psychotic and mood disorders.