Introduction

International law has typically operated at the state-to-state level, as opposed to a substate level. As such, it is states as a whole that are typically the subjects of international law. In contrast, individuals, corporations, and even substate political entities such as municipalities and provinces/states are typically not subjects of international law. Of course, in some fields within international law, such as human rights and international investment law, these substate entities are beginning to have greater rights and obligations as they begin to play a more active participatory role in international law. In international trade and development law, however, the rules and policies still largely operate at the traditional international law level – at the country or state level.