Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-76fb5796d-25wd4 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-27T21:08:20.667Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 45 - Cerebral Palsy

Advances in Definition, Classification, Management, and Outcome

from Section 4 - Specific Conditions Associated with Fetal and Neonatal Brain Injury

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 December 2017

David K. Stevenson
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
William E. Benitz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Philip Sunshine
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Susan R. Hintz
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Maurice L. Druzin
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Colver, A, Fairhurst, C, Pharoah, PO. Cerebral palsy. Lancet 2014; 383: 1240–9.Google Scholar
Pakula, AT, Van Naarden Braun, K, Yeargin-Allsopp, M. Cerebral palsy: classification and epidemiology. Phys Med Rehabil Clin North Am 2009; 20: 425–52.Google Scholar
Bax, MC. Terminology and classification of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1964; 6:295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, P, Paneth, N, Leviton, A, et al. A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl 2007; 109:9.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. International classification of functioning, disability, and health, 2001. Available at http://who.int/classifications/icf/icf_more/en/ (accessed May 23, 2015).Google Scholar
Rosenbaum, P, Stewart, D. World Health Organization International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: a model to guide clinical thinking, practice and research in the field of cerebral palsy. Semin Pediatr Neurol 2004; 11:510.Google Scholar
Chan, G, Miller, F. Assessment and treatment of children with cerebral palsy. Orthop Clin North Am 2014; 45: 313–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foran, JR, Steinman, S, Barash, I, et al. Structural and mechanical alterations in spastic skeletal muscle. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005; 47: 713–7.Google Scholar
Bax, M, Tydeman, C, Flodmark, O. Clinical and MRI correlates of cerebral palsy: the European Cerebral Palsy Study. JAMA 2006; 296: 1602–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shevell, MI, Dagenais, L, Hall, N. Comorbidities in cerebral palsy and their relationship to neurologic subtype and GMFCS level. Neurology 2009; 72: 2090–6.Google Scholar
Novak, I. Evidence-based diagnosis, health care, and rehabilitation for children with cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol 2014; 29: 1141–56.Google Scholar
MacLennan, AH, Thompson, SC, Gecz, J. Cerebral palsy: causes, pathways, and the role of genetic variants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2015; 213(6): 779–88.Google Scholar
Ellenberg, JH, Nelson, KB. The association of cerebral palsy with birth asphyxia: a definitional quagmire. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 210–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenbaum, PL, Palisano, RJ, Bartlett, DJ, et al. Development of the gross motor function classification system for cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008; 50: 249–53.Google Scholar
Palisano, R, Rosenbaum, P, Walter, S, et al. Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1997; 39: 214–23.Google Scholar
Palisano, RJ, Rosenbaum, P, Bartlett, D, Livingston, MH. Content validity of the expanded and revised Gross Motor Function Classification System. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008; 50: 744–50.Google Scholar
Gross Motor Function Classification System, 2015. Available at https://canchild.ca/system/tenon/assets/attachments/000/000/058/original/GMFCS-ER_English.pdf (accessed May 27, 2015).Google Scholar
Manual Abilities Classification System, 2015. Available at www.macs.nu/files/Mini-MACS_English_2016.pdf (accessed May 27, 2015).Google Scholar
Ohrvall, AM, Krumlinde-Sundholm, L, Eliasson, AC. The stability of the Manual Ability Classification System over time. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014; 56: 185–9.Google Scholar
Hidecker, MJ, Paneth, N, Rosenbaum, PL, et al. Developing and validating the Communication Function Classification System for individuals with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2011; 53: 704–10.Google Scholar
Oskoui, M, Coutinho, F, Dykeman, J, et al. An update on the prevalence of cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 509–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeargin-Allsopp, M, Van Naarden Braun, K, Doernberg, NS, et al. Prevalence of cerebral palsy in 8-year-old children in three areas of the United States in 2002: a multisite collaboration. Pediatrics 2008; 121: 547–54.Google Scholar
Durkin, MS, Maenner, MJ, Benedict, RE, et al. The role of socio-economic status and perinatal factors in racial disparities in the risk of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2015; 57(9): 835–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benfer, KA, Jordan, R, Bandaranayake, S, et al. Motor severity in children with cerebral palsy studied in a high-resource and low-resource country. Pediatrics 2014; 134:e1594–602.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McIntyre, S, Taitz, D, Keogh, J, et al. A systematic review of risk factors for cerebral palsy in children born at term in developed countries. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55:499508.Google Scholar
Van Naarden Braun, K, Christensen, D, Doernberg, N, et al. Trends in the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, intellectual disability, and vision impairment, metropolitan atlanta, 1991–2010. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0124120.Google Scholar
Aisen, ML, Kerkovich, D, Mast, J, et al. Cerebral palsy: clinical care and neurological rehabilitation. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10: 844–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, SE, Berg, M, Hunt, R, et al. Cooling for newborns with hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 1:CD003311.Google Scholar
Jacquemyn, Y, Zecic, A, Van Laere, D, Roelens, K. The use of intravenous magnesium in non-preeclamptic pregnant women: fetal/neonatal neuroprotection. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2015; 291: 969–75.Google Scholar
Sotiriadis, A, Tsiami, A, Papatheodorou, S, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome after a single course of antenatal steroids in children born preterm: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 125: 1385–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashwal, S, Russman, BS, Blasco, PA, et al. Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 2004; 62: 851–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosanquet, M, Copeland, L, Ware, R, Boyd, R. A systematic review of tests to predict cerebral palsy in young children. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 418–26.Google Scholar
Reid, SM, Dagia, CD, Ditchfield, MR, et al. Population-based studies of brain imaging patterns in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014; 56: 222–32.Google Scholar
Yin Foo, R, Guppy, M, Johnston, LM. Intelligence assessments for children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 911–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Novak, I, Hines, M, Goldsmith, S, Barclay, R. Clinical prognostic messages from a systematic review on cerebral palsy. Pediatrics 2012; 130:e1285–312.Google Scholar
Odding, E, Roebroeck, ME, Stam, HJ. The epidemiology of cerebral palsy: incidence, impairments and risk factors. Disabil Rehabil 2006; 28: 183–91.Google Scholar
Brossard-Racine, M, Hall, N, Majnemer, A, et al. Behavioural problems in school age children with cerebral palsy. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2012; 16:3541.Google Scholar
Parkes, J, White-Koning, M, Dickinson, HO, et al. Psychological problems in children with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional European study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008; 49: 405–13.Google Scholar
Fazzi, E, Signorini, SG, La Piana, R, et al. Neuro-ophthalmological disorders in cerebral palsy: ophthalmological, oculomotor, and visual aspects. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012; 54: 730–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dufresne, D, Dagenais, L, Shevell, MI. Spectrum of visual disorders in a population-based cerebral palsy cohort. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 50: 324–8.Google Scholar
Dufresne, D, Dagenais, L, Shevell, MI. Epidemiology of severe hearing impairment in a population-based cerebral palsy cohort. Pediatr Neurol 2014; 51: 641–4.Google Scholar
Cockerill, H, Elbourne, D, Allen, E, et al. Speech, communication and use of augmentative communication in young people with cerebral palsy: the SH&PE population study. Child Care Health Dev 2014; 40: 149–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrew, MJ, Parr, JR, Sullivan, PB. Feeding difficulties in children with cerebral palsy. Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 2012; 97: 222–9.Google Scholar
Parkinson, KN, Dickinson, HO, Arnaud, C, et al. Pain in young people aged 13 to 17 years with cerebral palsy: cross-sectional, multicentre European study. Arch Dis Child 2013; 98: 434–40.Google Scholar
Parkinson, KN, Gibson, L, Dickinson, HO, Colver, AF. Pain in children with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional multicentre European study. Acta Paediatr 2010; 99: 446–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simard-Tremblay, E, Constantin, E, Gruber, R, et al. Sleep in children with cerebral palsy: a review. J Child Neurol 2011; 26: 1303–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romeo, DM, Brogna, C, Musto, E, et al. Sleep disturbances in preschool age children with cerebral palsy: a questionnaire study. Sleep Med 2014; 15: 1089–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjornson, KF, Belza, B, Kartin, D, et al. Self-reported health status and quality of life in youth with cerebral palsy and typically developing youth. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 89: 121–7.Google Scholar
Colver, A, Rapp, M, Eisemann, N, et al. Self-reported quality of life of adolescents with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. Lancet 2015; 385: 705–16.Google Scholar
Nieuwenhuijsen, C, Donkervoort, M, Nieuwstraten, W, et al. Experienced problems of young adults with cerebral palsy: targets for rehabilitation care. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2009; 90: 1891–7.Google Scholar
Verhoef, JA, Bramsen, I, Miedema, HS, et al. Development of work participation in young adults with cerebral palsy: a longitudinal study. J Rehabil Med 2014; 46: 648–55.Google Scholar
Wiegerink, DJ, Roebroeck, ME, van der Slot, WM, et al. Importance of peers and dating in the development of romantic relationships and sexual activity of young adults with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52: 576–82.Google Scholar
Moster, D, Lie, RT, Markestad, T. Long-term medical and social consequences of preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 262–73.Google Scholar
Nelson, KB, Grether, JK. Can magnesium sulfate reduce the risk of cerebral palsy in very low birthweight infants? Pediatrics 1995; 95: 263–9.Google Scholar
Magnesium sulfate use in obstetrics (Committee Opinion No. 573). Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 727–8.Google Scholar
Fauchere, JC, Koller, BM, Tschopp, A, et al. Safety of early high-dose recombinant erythropoietin for neuroprotection in very preterm infants. J Pediatr 2015; 167(1): 52–7.e13.Google Scholar
Marks, JD, Schreiber, MD. Inhaled nitric oxide and neuroprotection in preterm infants. Clin Perinatol 2008; 35:793807.Google Scholar
Schmidt, B, Anderson, PJ, Doyle, LW, et al. Survival without disability to age 5 years after neonatal caffeine therapy for apnea of prematurity. JAMA 2012; 307: 275–82.Google Scholar
Novak, I, McIntyre, S, Morgan, C, et al. A systematic review of interventions for children with cerebral palsy: state of the evidence. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55:885910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, HH, Fetters, L, Hale, J, McBride, A. Bound for success: a systematic review of constraint-induced movement therapy in children with cerebral palsy supports improved arm and hand use. Phys Ther 2009; 89: 1126–41.Google Scholar
Delgado, MR, Hirtz, D, Aisen, M, et al. Practice parameter: pharmacologic treatment of spasticity in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology 2010; 74: 336–43.Google Scholar
Robb, JE, Hagglund, G. Hip surveillance and management of the displaced hip in cerebral palsy. J Child Orthop 2013; 7: 407–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Min, K, Song, J, Kang, JY, et al. Umbilical cord blood therapy potentiated with erythropoietin for children with cerebral palsy: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Stem Cells 2013; 31: 581–91.Google Scholar
Ruff, CA, Faulkner, SD, Fehlings, MG. The potential for stem cell therapies to have an impact on cerebral palsy: opportunities and limitations. Dev Med Child Neurol 2013; 55: 689–97.Google Scholar
Baird, G, McConachie, H, Scrutton, D. Parents’ perceptions of disclosure of the diagnosis of cerebral palsy. Arch Dis Child 2000; 83: 475–80.Google Scholar
Orioles, A, Miller, VA, Kersun, LS, et al. “To be a phenomenal doctor you have to be the whole package”: physicians’ interpersonal behaviors during difficult conversations in pediatrics. J Palliat Med 2013; 16: 929–33.Google Scholar
Shevell, AH, Shevell, M. Doing the “talk”: disclosure of a diagnosis of cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol 2013; 28: 230–5.Google Scholar
Feldman, HM. Redesigning Health Care for Children with Disabilities: Strengthening Inclusion, Contribution, and Health. Baltimore: Brookes Publishing, 2013.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×