Index

Index

Abkhazian, 229

acquisition

by adults, 40, 97, 240, 242

by children, 1, 4, 40, 89, 93, 95, 115, 137, 156, 163, 172, 209, 249, 260, 295

of majority language, 20–21

by second language learners, 97, 162, 171, 188, 237, 314

theories of, 42, 172, 235, 237–238, 242, 244

through education, 114, 223, 226, 235, 269

activities

artistic, 151, 182, 252

community, 12, 29, 117, 147, 177, 209

cultural, 102, 117, 145, 193, 285

at home, 246–248, 250

naming, 272

symbolic, 39

for tourists, 145–147, 149, 151

traditional, 142, 144, 158, 253

advocacy, 135, 141, 177

Afar, 224

Ainu, 168, 185, 229, 291

Albanian, 118

Algonquian languages, 187

Alznerish, 217

ancestors, 10, 12, 29–30, 32, 94, 156, 160, 263, 270

Anishinaabemowin, 271

announcements, public, 38, 117, 142

anonymity, 77

ideology of, 107

apps, 63, 103, 303

for language learning, 241, 297

for recording, 298, 307

Arabic, 229–230, 279

Aranda, Western, 224

Arawakan, 80

Arbanasi, 117

archives, 30, 59, 204, 206, 317

access to, 77, 207

community-based, 209, 308, 312

and community knowledge, 208

interface language of, 207

and training, 205, 207–208

use of, 38, 43, 201, 207, 226, 242

archiving, 77, 200, 207, 216

Argentina, 91, 180–181, 184

Armenian, 229

Arrernte, Eastern, 224

arts, 182, 192, 271, 273

assimilation, 14–15, 23, 41, 91, 93, 99, 135, 143, 174, 231, 288, 295

Asturian, 173, 188

attitudes, 5, 86

changing, 51, 102, 110, 112–113, 115, 117, 119, 121, 131–132, 135, 152, 169, 209, 251, 282, 285, 289

of government, 28, 71, 133

to language learning, 251

negative, 27, 94, 100, 104, 110–113, 118, 199

of nonspeakers, 114

of older speakers, 28, 202

positive, 18, 26, 104, 106, 110, 113, 116, 120, 132, 147, 288

of wider community, 104, 135, 151, 169

within community, 89, 104, 169

of young people, 120

audiences

for archive materials, 205

for films, 280, 282

for literature, 274, 282

for music, 277, 282, 290–291

online, 281

participation of, 291

for projects, 63, 66–67, 152, 293

Australia, 18, 23, 88, 91, 203, 210, 224, 226

Australian languages, 188

authenticity, 33, 42, 89–90, 107–108, 116, 141, 146, See also purism

ideology of, 107

and modernity, 122, 288

and tourism, 145–146

awareness

of attitudes and ideologies, 104, 116–117, 129, 168

of endangerment, 49

of history, 29

of projects, 75

public, 63, 109

raising, 38–39, 51, 102, 135–136, 147, 154, 182, 285, 318

Ayuuk (Ayöök), 193–194, 313

Bangladesh, 74

Barngarla, 23

Basque (Euskara), 56, 88, 110, 142, 173, 178–184, 186–189, 193, 231, 276

behaviour

and attitudes, 110

changing, 45, 50, 112, 124, 130, 135

in language learning, 235

Belarusian, 172

benefits (of revitalization), 9, 11, 15, 18, 22, 141

cognitive, 10, 115, 141

for community, 19, 26, 153, 265

economic, 11, 29, 141–142, 153

educational, 19, 222, 257, 265

for identity, 12

for wider community, 9, 154

Bengali, 279

Bhojpuri, 279

bilingualism. See multilingualism

Black Tai (Lao Song), 24–26

Bolivia, 316

borrowing, 32, 41–43, 48, 89, 97, 119, 139, 202, 209, 232

and purism, 48

Botswana, 224

Brazil, 163, 168, 207

Breath of Life programme, 38, 208

Breton, 13, 36, 108, 111, 172, 183, 287

budget, 61, 67, 72, 75–76, 78–79, See also costs

Buryat, 193

business, minority languages in, 141, 152, 166

campaigning, 44, 113, 117, 136, 151, 170, 173, 179, 231, 289, 318

Canada, 18, 20, 60, 88, 156, 180, 184, 189, 212, 271, 280, 312

funding, 73

Catalan, 56, 88, 173, 183, 186–187, 193, 276

Celtic languages, 182, 184, 231, 241

change, language, 34, 202, 242, 260

acceptance of, 40

as growth, 40

challenges of, 42

change, social, 11, 23, 32, 126, 135, 144, 157, 205, 288

Cherokee, 21, 269

children, involvement of, 295

removal of, 14

speaking to, 17, 34–35, 203, 210

and technology, 304, 307

Chile, 91, 180–181, 185, 189–190, 289, 316

China, 88, 168

Chinese, 92, 229

Chinuk Wawa, 254, 264

cinema, 279, 282

classrooms

for adults, 240

Indigenous, 236, 266

language for use in, 240, 249, 255

learning outside of, 254, 263, 267, 270, 305–306

clothing, traditional, 46, 57, 100, 125, 128, 133–134, 284, 291

coauthorship, 57

code-mixing, 41, 47, 96–97, 118–119, 139, 202, 209, 218

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, 19

collaborations, 67, 93, 131

among learners, 103

between communities, 179, 187, 192, 194

between community members and researchers, 38, 51–52, 77, 177, 216, 285, 293, 309

between teachers, 314

and films, 278, 280, 283

and funding, 73, 179, 190

intergenerational, 13, 103, 132, 138, 211, 240, 258, 260, 263, 265, 284–285, 306, 313

reluctance for, 50, 186

and shared experience, 70, 187

and songwriting, 290

and technology, 299

Colombia, 92, 189, 316

colonialism, 14, 87, 93, 101, 161, 180, 186–187, 217, 238, 240, 258

colonization, 18, 22, 91, 146, 186, 189, 199, 237, 257, 274

Comcaac (Seri), 277

commercialization, 30, 57, 141–142, 146, 149, 151, 280–281

commitment, 127, 133, 164, 283

of activists, 18, 70–71, 90, 136

of community, 132, 152

of learners, 250, 271

of teachers, 97, 255, 261

of youth, 316

commodification, 108, 147

communities, types of

ancestral, 87, 89

diaspora, 101–102, 177, 313

exiled, 91–92, 100, 218

migrant, 92, 166, 295

new, 100–101, 103, 218, 259, 287, 313

of practice, 88, 93, 102–103, 195

community

consultation with, 51–52, 58, 200, 205, 211, 283

decision making and control, 56, 165, 168, 209, 211, 228

defining, 33, 85, 100

engagement, 20, 50, 116, 147, 151, 172, 285

initiatives, 56, 119, 131, 168, 172, 216, 230, 259, 264, 284, 312–314

joining, 44, 115, 270

leaders, 25, 160, 177, 248, 263, 312

needs of, 51, 54, 61, 63–65, 87, 160, 168, 183, 216, 230, 238

organizations, 101–102, 167, 225, 285

relations within, 24, 87, 156–157, 218, 263

sense of, 38, 70, 147, 278

strengthening, 10, 13, 15, 18, 25, 99, 102–103, 116, 135, 156, 162, 209, 259, 263, 288

community members

as activists, 31, 50, 52–53, 57, 77, 94, 126, 131, 137, 159–160, 248, 259, 270, 280, 312

as researchers, 15, 25, 50, 73, 78, 139, 156, 163, 177, 200, 209, 224, 232–233, 263, 313

training of, 52, 77, 94, 151, 177, 182, 209, 216

community, wider, 25, 33, 75, 81, 94, 104, 109, 114, 120, 152, 154, 160, 169, 259

support of, 260, 275, 285, 317

conferences, 180, 192, 233, 309, 311

conflictethnolinguistic, 228

handling, 34, 131, 158, 317

and researchers, 52, 54, 164

within community, 50, 53, 88, 90, 157, 225, 228

connections, emotional, 123, 138, 161, 261, 263, 290

to community, 264, 266

consent

informed, 58, 76–77, 200

conversation, 5, 39, 192, 209, 266

clubs, 70, 74, 121

and debate, 275, 282

documentation of, 202, 224, 312, 314

with elders, 12, 29, 193, 211, 218–219, 248, 269, 312

for language learning, 39, 116, 152, 203, 251, 298

skills for, 16, 242, 244, 250, 270

via social media, 102, 185

withdrawal of, 58

copyright, 277, 290

corpus, 200–202, 208, 244

contents of, 209, 232, 244, 309

Corsica, 37

Corsican, 188

Costa Rica, 311

costs, 68, 72, 75, 147

of publications, 78, 81, 260, 309

reduction of, 192, 259

of technology, 303, 305, 310

travel, 78, 189

of websites, 298

counting, 41, 255

courses, cultural, 144

courses, field methods, 177, 216

courses, language, 15, 23, 29, 114, 131, 144

for adults, 66, 121, 258, 269, 313–314

for children, 259

community, 75, 119, 216, 249–250, 259

distance-learning and online, 103, 236, 244, 298, 314

residential, 314

in schools, 65, 151, 163, 250, 260

summer schools, 102, 193, 261, 305

in universities, 133, 136, 139, 144, 177, 257, 261

courses, literacy, 177

Cree, 188

critics, 4, 35, 274

Croatia, 118

Croatian, 118

Cuba, 91

culture. See also heritage, cultural

appropriation of, 57

disruption of, 22, 101

curriculum, 5, 73, 139, 171, 192, 211, 233, 241, 245, 247, 253, 266

culture-based, 172, 263–264, 267

development of, 235, 252, 257–258, 264, 314, 317

reclaiming, 12, 15, 25, 38, 41, 44, 156, 245, 273, 278, 281, 284, 288

revitalization of, 12, 14, 86, 144

and technology, 299, 302

Czech, 40, 105

dance, 28, 57, 145, 232, 248, 273, 275–277, 281, 284, 287–288

Danish, 86

decolonization, 2, 4, 14, 58, 180

dementia, 21–23, 29, 153

description, language, 159, 201, 208

development, economic, 30, 143–144, 147, 149, 151–152, 156

dialects, 36, 48, 56, 86, 90, 105, 109, 113, 118–119, 166, 169

dictionaries, 221, 223–224, 244, 259

creation of, 46, 72, 177

for learning, 244, 252, 308

monolingual, 233

online, 59, 63, 65, 103, 308–309, 312

Diné (Navajo), 1, 21, 91, 280, 318

disadvantage

economic, 87, 93, 101, 113, 141, 199

social, 112, 125, 129

discrimination, 24, 27, 55, 87, 90, 92–93, 101, 111–113, 125, 131, 141, 153, 191, 222

displacement, linguistic, 87–88, 273–274, 281

diversity

biological, 143

cultural, 141, 175

linguistic, 33, 99, 142, 151, 165, 169, 173–174, 177, 183, 224, 274, 279, 282

within communities, 102

Diyari, 204

Djibouti, 224

documentation, language, 34

community-driven, 30, 177, 189, 194, 232, 260, 314

of everyday communication, 35, 200, 209, 309

historical, 12, 29–30, 43, 58–59, 64, 94, 156, 203, 230, 307

of language change, 41

and language learners, 201, 210

and metadata, 200–201, 205, 208, 210–211

planning, 64, 76, 209

for revitalization, 94, 158, 199, 211, 293, 310, 312, 314

of traumatic memories, 29

use of, 38, 46, 200–201, 203, 208

documents, legal, 183–184

domains, 34, 96, 114, 124, 174, 200

expanding, 9, 11, 152, 169, 177, 199, 211, 289

in the home, 246, 259

for learning, 165, 249–251, 315

and policies, 10

public, 38, 88, 108, 173–174, 261–262, 275–276, 278

reclaiming, 236, 240, 245–246, 249

restricted, 92, 97, 125–126, 219, 242

and technology, 305

Ecuador, 316

education

access to, 101

bilingual, 188, 233

formal, 26, 30, 116–117, 139, 224, 258

Indigenous, 253, 257, 266

informal, 116–117, 263

in majority language, 24, 126, 251, 269

meeting mainstream standards, 41, 257, 265

mother-tongue, 19, 200, 221, 235

primary, 121, 152, 236, 252–253, 261, 264

special needs, 20

through Indigenous language, 115, 251, 253, 257, 264, 314

university-level, 133, 136, 139, 144, 257, 261, 314

El Salvador, 81, 91, 127, 194

elders, 264

involvement of, 39, 53, 103, 112, 131, 203, 209, 240, 254, 258, 260, 263–264, 267, 269–271, 285, 312

and ownership, 120, 158

and purism, 42, 53, 119, 202

speaking to, 36, 138, 210, 312

elicitation, 218

emotions, expressing, 123–124, 262

employment, 23–24, 101, 109, 111, 113, 115, 126, 137–138, 140–141, 143, 153–154, 161

using minority language in, 114, 141, 149, 151, 154

empowerment, 4, 11, 31, 56, 91, 93, 135, 139–140, 157, 161, 173, 193, 216, 227, 285

Endangered Language Alliance, 181, 187

Endangered Language Fund (ELF), 73

endangerment, 2, 4, 49, 86–87, 98, 178, 187–188

biological, 142

Engaged Humanities project, 2, 46, 94, 134, 149, 192, 218, 317

English, 40–41, 96, 102, 115, 119, 126, 149, 163, 185, 187, 207, 223, 231–232, 279, 312

First Nations English, 89

environment

Indigenous management of, 143–144, 147, 152–153, 221, 254, 264–265, 268, 272

relationships with, 144, 248, 266, 317

equipment, technical, 54, 72, 78–79, 212, 279, 302, 310

Eritrea, 224

Estonia, 231

ethics, 77–78, 131, 215–216

Ethiopia, 224

ethnobotany, 143, 248

European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, 169–170, 175, 184

Euskara, See Basque

evaluation, 25, 62, 66–70, 157, 182, 211

external, 68

of plans, 45

of technology, 303–304

Evenki, 16

events, community, 15, 132, 135, 266, See also activities & festivals

expertise, 160–161, 164, 189, 317

expressions, formulaic, 41, 209–210

families, language choice in, 114, 126, 135–137, 140, 165, 177, 246, 249, 251, 258, 306

features, typological, 201, 210

festivals, 38, 276, 278, 282, 290

language, 131, 136, 259, 287

online, 288

traditional, 287–288, 295

fieldwork, 193, 200, 216, 218

training for, 194

filmmakers, Indigenous, 279–280

films, 94, 177, 182–183, 195, 259, 274, 278–281, 285, 295

distribution of, 280, 282

dubbing, 273, 279–280

multilingual, 279

subtitling, 184, 282, 312

Finland, 144, 235, 253

Finnish, 105

First Nations (Canada), 12, 19, 181–182, 280

fluency, 9, 38–39, 97, 249, 255, 289, 306

folklorization, 24, 146, 231, 284–285

fonts, 205, 228–230, 303

Foundation for Endangered Languages (FEL), 73, 180

France, 13, 92, 111, 119, 167, 172, 180, 186, 228, 279, 287

French, 108, 119, 167, 190

Acadian French, 180, 184–186

in Africa, 190

French Guyana, 190

funding, 33, 51, 67, 280, 317

academic, 72–73, 260

agencies, 51, 57–58, 75, 141, 160, 162, 190

and evaluation, 68

applications, 65, 67, 75–76

community initiatives, 25, 61, 259

crowd funding, 67, 73–74

government, 169, 185, 274

informal fundraising, 73–74, 288

lack of, 69, 163, 259

local, 67, 72, 81, 120, 147

through tourism, 146–147

Gaelic, 147, 180, 184–186, 231

Scottish Gaelic, 142, 184, 187, 282

Irish Gaelic See Irish, See also Manx

Galician, 173, 276

games

for children, 35–36, 70, 203

interactive, 147, 149, 209, 259, 305, 309

language, 94, 149, 259, 295

for learning, 177, 216, 250, 252, 259

for tourists, 151, 287

gender, 54, 158, 275

genocide, 87, 91, 128

Georgia, 229

Georgian, 229

German, 87, 217–218, 232

Low German, 170

Germany, 91–92, 170, 279

Ghana, 230

globalization, 86–87, 145

goals, 9, 11, 50, 62, 76, 87, 160

achievable, 39, 45, 162, 257

of community members, 51, 89, 161–162, 216–217

defining, 63

of language documentation, 208

long-term, 37, 65

short-term, 64–65

government

local, 25, 50, 55–56, 67, 151, 163, 261

national, 11, 50, 67, 151, 160, 162, 174–175, 224, 230, 263, 274, 283

tribal, 65, 78, 156, 277

grammar, 167, 200, 216

simplification of, 41–42

teaching of, 36, 240, 244, 249

grammars, 63, 221, 224

and purism, 159

Greenland, 16

greetings, 16, 18, 35, 41–42, 45, 94, 142, 209, 232, 245, 255, 309

Greko, 102, 138, 193

Guarani, 207, 281–282

Mbya-Guarani, 280

Guatemala, 80, 86, 274–275, 278, 282, 289, 316

Guernesiais, 35, 39–41, 119, 188, 193

Guernsey, 4, 35, 39, 119

Guyana, 163

Haitian, 185

Haudenosaunee, 271

Hawai’i, 226

Hawaiian, 20, 256

healing, 10, 13, 91, 132, 221

health, 264

physical, 18, 21, 23, 29, 143, 153

psychological, 15, 17, 23, 25, 127–128, 131–132, 138, 153

healthcare, 81, 101, 143, 153, 317

Hebrew, 17, 92, 188, 229

heritage, cultural, 4, 10, 16, 118, 138, 163, 223, 317

documentation of, 206, 218, 285

learning about, 26, 263, 266

and tourism, 58, 142, 145, 151

and youth, 29, 120

Hindi, 40, 279

homeschooling, 236, 249, 251

Ichishkíin, 298

identity

for adults, 240

changing, 108, 133, 169, 218

and community, 60, 85, 109, 161, 275

of community, 51, 89, 104, 106, 108–109

connecting with past, 32, 36, 263

and goals, 39–40

ideologies, 86–87, 104

immersion, 12, 20–21, 115, 172, 221, 240, 242, 255, 261

individual, 136, 153

of language learners, 238, 242, 271, 315

local, 24, 284

and migration, 93, 96

modern, 100, 107–108

multiple, 100, 102

negative, 25, 100

negative, 94, 100, 113, 125, 154

positive, 47, 114

racist, 90, 125

reclaiming, 4, 9, 11, 13, 15, 29, 31, 44, 100, 121, 258, 280, 288

of standard language, 105, 173

and stereotypes, 13, 105

symbolic, 45

of youth, 177, 288, See also language nests & master-apprentice programmes

camps, 61, 181

pre-schools, 35, 121, 136, 152, 256–257, 264, 269, 310, 313–314

schools, 41, 121, 136, 152, 240, 251, 256–257, 264, 288, 314, 318

implementation (of projects), 62, 68, 157

India, 74, 279

inequality, 23, 101, 112, 146

influence

from Indigenous language, 89, 96

from majority language, 40, 46, 85, 89–90, 98, 118, 139, 188, 242

of traditional usage, 40, 119

institutions, academic, 56, 58, 75, 180, 261, 271, 274, 285

and community members, 74, 133, 216

and Indigenous researchers, 234, 257

institutions, language, 169, 181

institutions, local, 67, 78, 81, 115, 131, 143–144, 177

Instituto de docencia e investigación etnológica de Zacatecas (IDIEZ), 139, 191, 233

intelligibility, mutual, 86, 101, 191, 217

Internet, 15, 122, 185, 190, 224, 275, 280, 288, 295, 304–305, 315–316

intimacy, 24, 36, 123

Inuit, 187–188, 279

Inuktitut, 181, 188, 279

Ireland, 106, 148, 231

Irish, 43, 106–107, 142, 152, 187, 231

Isle of Man, 41, 120, 148

ISO codes, 171

Italian, 118

Italy, 102–103, 170, 194, 279

Itzá, 86

Ịzọn, 193

Japan, 23, 88, 168, 170, 185, 229, 291

Japanese, 24, 229, 279

Jejudommal, 123–124

Jèrriais, 36, 290

Jersey, 36, 290

jokes, 16, 203, 209, 276, 309

Juǀ’hoan, 221

Judaism, 17, 100, 229

Judeo-Persian, 229

K’iche Maya, 80

Kalaallisut (Greenlandic), 16

Kāi Tahu. See Māori (Southern)

Kannada, 279

Kaqchikel Maya, 80–81, 275, 278

Karaim, 229

Kashubian, 113, 170–171, 193, 231

Kaurna, 204

Khoekhoegowab, 224

Khwe, 220

Kiliwa, 85

knowledge

cultural, 10, 16, 210, 234, 249, 263, 266, 269, 276

documentation of, 16, 41, 64, 143–144, 203, 221, 268

Indigenous ways of knowing, 234, 237, 244, 254, 272

local, 25, 143, 146–147, 164, 266

traditional, 53–54, 128, 142–144, 156, 172, 221, 253, 266, 268

Korean, 123, 223, 229

Kristang, 258

Kurdish, 231

Ladino, 229

landscape, linguistic, 38, 116–117, 146, 149, 152, 154, 218, 231, 285

language

as secret code, 92

banned, 38, 141, 276, 284

choice of, 90, 93–94, 97, 106, 108, 112, 124, 135, 165, 183

dead or dormant, 40, 86, 90, 93, 120, 156, 158, 226

formal, 34, 36

national, 86, 88–90, 95, 98, 105, 118, 123, 126, 174–175

ritualistic, 44, 210, 274, 276

sacred, 12, 17, 203, 255

standard, 11, 36, 105, 107, 173, 224

symbolic use of, 18, 38, 89, 94, 98, 142, 146, 166, 210, 271

taking back, 14, 130

of wider communication, 4, 80, 200

Latgalian, 170, 231

Latvia, 170, 231

learners, 95, 103, 209

assessment of, 235, 250, 259, 270, 299, 302–303

and authenticity, 108

and daily language use, 209, 246–247, 249, 251, 254–256, 259, 261–262, 315, 318

errors of, 102, 237

goals for, 15, 241–242, 245, 249–250, 253, 255, 267, 302

and historical trauma, 238, 242

responsibility for learning, 251–252

as teachers, 306

and technology, 299

and written materials, 223, 227, 240–242, 307

Lemko/Łemko, 91, 193, 261

Lenca, 80

lifestyle, 18, 23

tourist experiences of, 145

traditional, 18, 23, 122, 135, 143, 145, 280, 288

Limburgian, 170

links

between activists, 94, 192, 194

between communities, 71, 94, 134, 144, 159, 161, 178–179, 181–182, 184, 188, 193, 291, 314, 316–317

between projects, 70, 73, 76, 178, 251

between teachers, 244, 311

within community, 13, 39, 85, 209, 219, 288

listening, 29, 60, 104

literacy, 63, 222, 224, 226–227, 230–231, 274–275, 282

and Christianity, 221

literature, 140, 232, 259, 273, 288

new styles of, 273–275

oral, 275–276, 278, 281–282

traditional, 43, 277–278, 314

Lithuania, 229

Lithuanian, 231

livelihoods, traditional, 264, 266

agriculture, 64, 107, 143, 234

fishing, 144, 250

reindeer herding, 16, 144, 254, 267

loanwords. See borrowing

logotherapy, 128–129

Lombardese, 228

loss, language, 22–23, 92, 97, 153, 281

lullabies, 203, 210

Lushootseed, 236, 245

Maasai, 57

Maaya t’aan. See Yucatec Maya

Makushi, 163, 193

Malawi, 224

Malayalam, 279

Malaysia, 258

Maliseet (Wolastoqi), 12, 312–313, See also Passamaquoddy

Mam Maya, 80

Mandarin, 279

Manx, 39, 41, 90, 120, 148, 193, 318

Māori, 20, 35–36, 38, 40, 44, 88, 136, 148, 152, 179, 187, 240, 251, 277

Southern (Kāi Tahu), 88, 179

Māori Language Commission, 43, 152

Mapuche, 178, 180–181, 184–185, 190

Mapudungun, 289

Marathi, 279

marginalization, 4, 24, 55, 101, 125, 162, 222, 273–274

marketing

and funding, 152

of heritage, 146

of languages, 151–152, 154

of products, 149

of projects, 67

of revitalization, 142, 144, 147, 152

master-apprentice programs, 13, 39, 62, 74, 236, 240, 245, 248; See also mentor-apprentice

Masurian, 193

creation of, 38, 62, 94, 103, 161, 167, 177, 183, 211, 216, 293, 297, 299, 307, 309–310, 314–315

distribution of, 59, 170, 193, 274, 282, 295, 304, 312

for language learning and teaching, 64, 72, 76, 94, 163, 177, 193–194, 209, 222, 226, 232–233, 235, 239, 241, 246, 249, 261, 264–265, 274, 299, 307, 309, 312

legacy, 201, 205, 226

materials for children, 64, 144, 310

multimedia, 177, 273, 293, 305

for online learning, 177, 268, 314–315

and variation, 159, 224

written, 36, 221, 261, 268, 307

Mayan languages, 80, 274

media

interest of, 25, 56, 219

news, 121, 273

role of, 116, 151, 166, 261, 317

media, social, 11, 70, 103, 114, 172, 185, 209, 225, 273, 277, 281, 288, 309, 317

for awareness raising, 115, 313

blogs, 268, 306, 315

for campaigning, 166, 316

for changing attitudes, 289

communities, 101

Facebook, 103, 185, 250, 261, 280, 304, 309, 311

Instagram, 250, 309

policies, 304

for teachers, 311

Twitter, 309, 316

WhatsApp, 102, 309

YouTube, 15, 280–282, 289, 307, 315

medicine, traditional, 16, 143–144, 249, 270

Megrelian, 229

Mennonites, 92

mentor-apprentice programmes, See also master-apprentice programs

methodology (for revitalization), 76, 78, 94, 177, 179, 211, 218–219, 233

Mexico, 30, 57, 85–86, 92, 94–95, 101, 124, 143, 178, 194, 274, 277, 282, 289, 293, 313, 316

Mi’kmaq, 12, 20

Mi’kmaw, 180, 184–186

Miami-Illinois. See myaaamia

Miami Tribe, 74, 156, 308, See also myaamia

migration, 89, 92, 96–97, 101, 126, 137, 187

economic, 101

forced, 22, 143

Minderico, 184

minoritization, 55, 128, 273

Mirandese, 169

Mississauga, 271

Mixe, 314

Mixtec, 101, 177, 193–194, 274, 289

Mixteco/Indígena Community Organizing Project (MICOP), 101, 177, 216

modernity, 23, 45, 114, 122, 126, 202, 258, 285, 288–289

Mohawk, 188

in Indigenous language, 125

monolingualism, 10, 20, 119, 166

in national language, 88

and nationalist ideologies, 113, 165, 173, 276, 288

within projects, 103, 139, 191, 233

Mopan, 86

economic, 10, 88, 97, 109, 114

motivationsof activists, 4, 12, 38, 44–45, 112, 138, 280

of researchers, 50, 293

for revitalization, 9–11, 22, 39, 49, 104

of speakers, 10, 87, 89, 114, 136–137, 288

of teachers, 253, 260

movements, grassroots, 87, 141, 168, 258–259, 275, 283, 289

multilingualism, 40, 86, 93, 96–97, 109, 115, 120, 154, 166, 169, 171, 238, 266

benefits of, 4, 10, 20–22, 29, 115, 153, 266

concerns about, 20, 113, 115, 119, 242

replacive bilingualism, 88

of younger speakers, 89

museums, 29, 46, 67, 74, 81, 193, 280, 317

folk, 28–29, 121, 284

hip hop, 277–278, 289

and identity, 278, 290

learning through, 261, 291, 295

living, 147, 149, 151

music, 276, 282, 287–288, 290

new styles of, 277–278, 281, 288–289, 291, 295

online, 147

rap, 90, 278, 289, 295

reggae, 277, 289

rock, 277, 289, 295

traditional, 268, 273

myaamia, 15, 156, 158–159, 163, 252, 308

N’ko, 230

Nahuatl, 30, 40, 47, 94–96, 98, 124, 139–140, 143, 154, 191–192, 194, 233, 282, 295

names

language, 171, 207

personal, 128, 133, 208, 231, 253, 262

Namibia, 220–221

Naro, 224

nationalism, 88, 100, 113, 173

Native American nations, 91

Navajo. See Diné

Nawat (Pipil), 91, 103, 127, 130, 193

neocolonialism, 46

nests, language, 63, 65, 88, 152, 172, 179, 236, 240, 246, See also immersion

at home, 240, 245–246, 249, 251

Netherlands, 92, 170

networks (for revitalization), 93–94, 178, 185, 192–194, 316–317, See also links

New Zealand, 20, 35–36, 44, 148, 152, 277

non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 80, 144, 163, 166, 181

and communities, 81

and funding, 73–74, 78, 147

local, 81, 285

normalization, 173, 274

Norway, 16, 18, 21, 144

Norwegian, 86

nostalgia, 4, 45, 146, 202

nursery rhymes, 35–36, 203

Ojibwa (Anishanabeeg), 20, 240

Okanagan Salish, 74

Okinawan, 23

orthography, 165, 202, 228

development of, 38, 207, 211, 220–221, 223, 226, 228, 230

and identity, 224, 227, 229–230

and ideologies, 228–230

non-standardized, 205, 232

and phonology, 223, 230

and technology, 11, 303

Ossetian, 229

outcomes, 77, 138

educational, 11, 257

measurable, 63, 66, 70, 76, 162

ownership, 90, 225, 259

and authenticity, 33, 42, 48, 107–108, 116

of data, 57, 304

and learners, 108, 122

Pahka’anil, 236, 244–245

Paraguay, 281

Passamaquoddy, 212, 312

and difficult issues, 55

influence of, 42

and language learners, 45, 240, 245, 291

new styles of, 273, 276–277, 281, 285, 289, 291

pastconnecting with, 4, 12–13, 31–32, 40–41, 134, 156, 161, 202, 218

performances, 38, 288, 290

traditional, 146, 199, 273, 276, 278, 284, See also Maliseet

permissions, 56, 75, 78, 164, 204, 207

persecution, 28–29, 55, 100, 111–112, 125, 133, 141, 148, 218

Peru, 181, 277, 289, 316

phonology, 177, 201

Piedmontese, 170, 228

Pipil. See Nawat

place, 18, 142, 160, 254, 263, 266

placenames, 63, 221, 228, 255, 271

planning

activities, 5, 15, 32, 34, 37, 62, 64

and community members, 51, 53, 211

and funding, 75

projects, 52, 62, 68, 157

strategic, 45, 62–63, 65, 68, 105, 258, 318

for teaching, 172–173

planning, language, 167, 173

acquisition, 171–172

bottom-up, 39, 168

corpus, 167, 173

prestige, 169

status, 167, 173

top-down, 169–170

plants, 16, 64, 142–143, 248–249, 266, 270

poetry, 43, 45–46, 177, 232, 261, 273, 284, 290

Poland, 56, 86, 88, 91–92, 99, 113, 170–172, 176, 193–194, 217, 229, 231

policies

of archives, 206–207

bottom-up, 110, 112, 165

community, 90, 117, 165, 181–182

educational, 10, 88, 94, 117, 125, 141, 165, 171–172, 175

influencing, 173, 182

national, 33, 89, 136, 141, 143, 165–166, 174, 176, 224–225, 274

top-down, 112, 114, 165, 168, 170

and writing systems, 224, 226, 229–231

policy-makers, 135, 143, 153, 165, 167–168, 172, 177

language institutions as, 164, 172

Polish, 29, 40, 47, 133, 149, 218, 232

politeness, 36, 41

politicians, 50, 71, 141, 143, 167

Portugal, 169, 279

Portuguese, 184, 207, 279

post-vernacular, 37, 94

Potawatomi, 236, 244

poverty, 86, 111, 137

power, social, 159, 162

pragmatics, 109, 201–202

prayers, 12, 38, 200, 221, 265, 274

prestige, 10, 96, 105, 111, 133, 154, 169–170, 174

low, 113–114, 120

raising, 28, 31, 35, 112, 218, 285

reclaiming, 119

of traditional speakers, 107

pride, 20, 26, 109, 114, 118–119, 162, 177, 221, 257

privacy, 77, 203, 304

language use in, 108

products, 142, 145

handicrafts, 144–146, 149, 264, 268

souvenirs, 149, 151, 285

proficiency, 87, 95, 120

and employment, 151

of learners, 162, 210, 238, 241, 245, 307

of teachers, 242, 255

of youth, 95, 158

projects

design of, 66–67, 76

impact of, 75–76, 153, 200, 220, 226, 262, 279, 289, 293

timelines for, 63, 68, 76

urban, 259

pronunciation

correct, 159, 241

of new speakers, 41–42, 298, 306, 308

protests, 112, 135–136, 167, 182, 276

through music, 276–277, 288–289

Provençal/Occitan, 228

publication, 274

academic, 52, 57, 161

of books, 94, 221, 274, 276, 282, 295

of Christian materials, 221

and consent, 58

of digital materials, 309–310

in newspapers, 261

of storybooks, 74, 177, 232

purism, 32, 42, 46, 48, 90, 96, 108, 118, 139, 159

as positive, 90

and teaching materials, 202

Q’eqchi’ Maya, 80, 278

Quebecois, 190

Quechua, 43, 185, 207, 277, 282, 289

racism, 87, 90, 93, 125, 154, 205, 259

radio, 77, 117, 121, 273, 282, 314

recognition

of endangerment, 49

as language, 37, 47, 56, 90, 109, 118–119, 154, 170

lack of, 92, 101, 113, 135–136, 169, 175–176, 273

official, 88, 113, 136, 170–171, 266, 281, 314

seeking, 86, 110, 112, 167, 170, 182, 188, 289, 318

symbolic, 118

reconstruction, language, 33, 35

recordings

creating, 200, 211–213, 216, 232, 260, 313

ethical issues with, 57, 204

historical, 59, 203, 205, 244

for language learning, 298, 302, 306, 313, 315

storage of, 215

use of, 221, 244

registers, 35, 38, 40, 48

research

benefits for community, 61

Indigenous, 60, 233–234

planning, 25, 61

researchers

knowledge of community, 51, 54, 70, 116

negative views of, 55, 260

positionality of, 56, 61

relations with community, 51, 61, 70, 75, 78, 131, 160, 168

and status, 159, 218

and time constraints, 50–51

resilience, 11, 15, 88

resistance, 15, 88, 114, 116, 277

resources

assessing, 5, 34, 37, 63, 67–68, 164, 168, 264, 314

lack of, 132, 318

mobilizing, 93, 131

sharing, 101, 179, 185, 189

respect

for community, 50, 54, 56, 60

for language, 221

for researchers, 59, 218

for speakers, 96, 210, 313

for stakeholders, 70, 160, 163–164, 263

revival, language, 4, 92–93, 173, 223, 313

riddles, 210, 295

rights

human, 135, 141, 166, 174

intellectual property, 57, 204, 304

land, 221

linguistic, 11, 92, 112, 135–136, 141, 166, 174–175, 182, 184, 222, 289

rituals, 44–45, 88, 136, 214, 221, 266

in school, 267

Rom/Romani, 92, 100

Russia, 88, 100, 229

Rusyn, 176

Ryūkyūan, 170, 229

salaries, 68, 72, 78, 161

Sámi, 16, 18, 21, 144, 193, 236, 253, 266

Sámi University of Applied Sciences (Sámi allaskuvla), 144, 172

San Martín Peras Mixtec, 177

Sandawe, 221

Saxon, Low, 170

schools, field, 46, 149, 192–193, 195, 218–219

schools, language teaching in, 91, 171, 211, 248–249

concerns about, 36, 40, 113

mainstream, 4, 121, 172

Scotland, 148, 184

Scots, 170

Scots, Ulster, 170

scripts, 188, 224, 228–230

self-determination

personal, 9, 14–15, 18, 22, 129–130

political, 11, 15, 31, 188, 318

self-esteem, 18, 26, 31–32, 70, 139, 153, 220, 226, 255

sensitivity, cultural, 57, 60, 94, 253, 266, 295

shamans, 12, 17, 95

shame, 85, 97, 109–111, 125, 141, 154, 271

shift, language, 14–15, 23, 48, 90, 101, 112, 119, 126, 171, 202, 230, 312

reversing, 88, 93, 110

Siberia, 12, 16–17

Sicilian, 170

signage, 11, 38, 44, 63, 116, 121, 152, 155, 221, 228

SIL, 133, 171, 221

Silesian, 47, 171, 176, 193

Siletz Dee-ni’, 308

Singapore, 258

Sḵwx̱wú7mesh (Squamish), 180

smartphones, 103, 212, 298, 308–309, 315

socialization, language, 87, 97, 109, 158

software, 76, 79, 179, 205, 207, 211, 281, 300, 302–304, 315

solidarity, 38, 109, 144, 178, 180, 184, 191

songs, 28, 38, 57, 62, 210, 232, 273, 282

for language learning, 255, 289

new, 261, 273, 276–277, 285

online, 289

traditional, 12, 18, 45, 94, 103, 205, 248, 265, 267, 273–274, 276–277, 284, 287, 291

Sorbian, 168

South Africa, 145–146, 203

South West Oregon Dene, 308

space, monolingual, 139, 191, 240, 246, 257, 269, 285

Spain, 56, 88, 92, 180, 183, 186, 194, 276, 279

Spanish, 32, 47, 80, 96, 98, 101–102, 125–127, 139, 184, 191, 207, 233, 274, 279

Indo-American Spanish, 89

speakers

fluent, 95–96, 203, 218, 240, 248, 257, 318

and language documentation, 200

last, 90–91, 120, 257, 260, 284

needs of, 161

new, 9, 34, 39, 42, 98, 115, 122, 136, 148, 151–152, 168, 209, 262, 270, 287, 313, 315

non-, 45, 95, 108–109, 163

potential, 104, 115–116, 135, 137, 152

semi-, 39, 93, 95, 97, 312

silent, 19

traditional, 34, 90, 103, 107, 315

urban, 37, 60, 85, 93, 108, 124, 146, 254

young, 43, 90, 96, 103, 119, 154

speaking

fear of, 19

opportunities for, 114, 116, 119, 135, 138–139, 169, 187, 192, 209, 219, 239, 242, 246, 251, 306, 312

spontaneous, 97, 242

spirits, communicating with, 12, 160

spirituality, 12, 136, 162, 221

stakeholders, 33, 86, 94, 160, 163, 283

relations between, 163–164

standardization, 11, 33, 37, 105, 167, 225, 274

lack of, 118, 202

and language planning, 173

of orthography, 36, 191–192

status, 36, 109, 171

raising, 38, 152, 170, 200, 266, 290

stories, 12, 25, 60, 103, 133, 205, 208, 240, 255, 265, 272, 275, 295

and contemporary storytelling, 275, 281

and dance, 275, 277

and films, 279–280

and learning, 245, 264–268, 270

and storytelling, 271, 273–274, 276, 312

success, 127, 187, 211, 257, 282, 285, 290

suicide, 18, 153

surveys

of attitudes, 5, 115, 177, 193, 218, 250

of community, 145, 163

environmental, 142–144, 168, 266, 268

Guatemala, 80

Guernesiais, 120

Irish, 106

of languages, 62, 211

of learners, 250

of projects, 52, 161, 184, 315, 318

sustainability of archive resources, 206

tools for, 308

of vitality, 70, 174

Svan, 229

Swedish, 86

Sylheti, 74, 193

Tai, 193

Taino, 91

Taiwanese, 279

Tamazight, 187

Tamil, 279

Tanzania, 221

Tasmania, 91

teachers, 97

as learners, 235, 241, 252, 255, 269

fluency of, 236, 255

lack of, 5, 274

recruiting, 94, 220, 239, 270, 313

and technology, 299

training of, 177, 181, 244, 253, 261, 309, 311, 317

teaching methods, 183, 192, 216, 235, See also language nests & immersion

Accelerated Second Language Acquisition (ASLA), 236, 249, 252

Can-Do statements, 236, 245

choices of, 172, 238, 242, 245, 252, 298

communicative, 241–242, 244, 258, 263

culture-based learning, 250, 253–255, 263–264, 266, 268, 270

direct, 241–242

grammar-translation, 240, 242, 244

home learning, 251, 256, 259

immersive, 248, 252, 254–255, 261

kinetic activities, 241, 249–250, 252, 255

project based learning, 310

radically input-based, 241–242, 244

reclaiming domains, 236, 240, 245, 249

and technology, 297, 307–308, 311

teams, 26, 69, 93, 103, 131, 138, 200, 259, 263, 295, 317

technology

access to, 221, 227, 275, 298, 303, 305, 308, 315

creative use of, 283

digital, 147, 225, 288

file formats, 205, 213

for language learning, 297, 302, 305, 307, 309–310, 315

and language use, 306, 309–310, 315

for recording, 79, 212, 298, 302–303

for revitalization, 224, 316

skills for, 297, 300

Tehuelche, 184

television, 117, 273, 279, 282, 293, 314

Telugu, 279

texting, 11, 103, 118, 225, 309

Thailand, 24

theatre, 28, 38, 55, 103, 133, 151, 261, 275, 285, 288

for language learning, 285

Tolowa Dee-ni’, 236, 248–251, 298

tourism, 30, 145, 153

community initiatives, 145, 149, 221

and local languages, 147, 152

and tourist information, 149

transcription, 31, 200–202, 207, 211, 216, 312

translation, 31, 200–201, 205, 207, 211, 216, 232, 290–291, 312

transmission, 171, 211

broken, 13, 24, 88, 95, 97, 102, 111–112, 114, 119, 123–124, 128, 182, 199, 222, 226, 258

cultural, 17, 162

intergenerational, 25, 35, 87, 96, 108, 137, 141, 152, 158, 239, 258, 262, 295

reestablishing, 103, 240, 246, 269, 306

responsibility for, 4, 138

trauma, 18, 22, 85, 91, 111–112, 153, 238

addressing, 14, 28–29, 53, 312

and consent, 55, 58

in schools, 88, 111, 113, 125, 139, 271

Tu’un Savi (Mixtec), 177, See also Mixtec

Tübatulabal, 244, 245, See also Pahka’anil

Tumbuka, 224

Turkish, 230–231

Tzotzil, 289

Tzutuhil Maya, 278, 289

Ukraine, 91, 176

Ukrainian, 231

UNESCO, 19, 70, 118, 120, 133, 174

United Kingdom, 92, 119, 148, 170, 194

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 15, 58, 174

University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), 177, 216

University of Hawai’i College of Hawaiian Language, 172, 257

urbanization, 124, 142, 288

Uruguay, 91

Uruk, 193

USA, 21, 38, 88, 91–93, 96, 101, 126, 143, 156, 194, 203, 235, 264, 312

funding, 73–74

use, language

actual, 46, 113, 200, 209

encouraging, 116, 135–137, 148, 222

and identity, 238

usefulness (of language), 106, 108, 116, 140, 148, 154

Uto-Aztecan languages, 233

value (of language), 108, 126, 132, 140, 154, 162

economic, 90, 138, 140, 142, 151, 154, 166

emotional, 138, 146, 162

values, community, 44, 156–158, 253, 266–268

values, emotional, 124, 281

Vanuatu, 78

variation, 118, 173, 224

by age, 41, 89, 105, 202

in proficiency, 89, 92, 95, 97–98

varieties

acceptance of, 90, 170, 224, 251

choice of, 33, 37, 89, 124

in diaspora, 92

differences between, 89, 105, 192

regional, 191, 244

Venetian, 118, 170, 228

Veneto, 92

video, 94, 274

for language documentation, 309, 314

for language learning, 250, 265, 313

music, 277–278

online, 177, 277, 280–281, 315

recording of, 214, 279, 307, 310

for revitalization, 280, 312

Vietnamese, 230

Vilamovian. See Wymysiöeryś

visibility of community, 54–55, 291

of languages, 38, 70, 114, 131, 142, 148, 152, 177, 278, 281, 283, 285, 312–313

of projects, 103, 149

vitality, linguistic, 9–10, 14, 70, 80, 86, 88, 98, 141, 147

vocabulary, 16, 32, 43, 48, 167, 233

documentation of, 176, 216

grammatical, 35, 192, 233

learning, 64, 223, 240, 248–250, 252, 254–255, 270–271, 293, 308

new, 32, 36, 43–44, 167, 204, 232, 250

reconstruction of, 40

reduced, 41, 97, 118

for schools, 33, 43, 233, 240, 264

for technology, 33, 43

traditional, 16, 48, 107

Võro (Southern Estonian), 231

Wales, 35, 151, 187–188, 228, 314

Wallmapu, 180

Wampanoag, 15

websites, 72, 151, 170, 250, 261, 280, 316

development of, 76, 298, 306, 310

welfare linguistics, 23

well-being, 10–11, 22, 25, 153

of community, 19, 22, 26, 44, 60, 157, 179

of learners, 138, 238, 266–267

of researchers, 59

of speakers, 136, 226

of teachers, 311

Welsh, 36, 136, 142, 148, 151, 184, 187–188, 314

Wilamowice, 4, 50, 55, 57, 99, 148–149, 193, 218–219, 260, 284, See also Wymysiöeryś

workplace, language in, 80–81, 142, 149, 151, 154, 209

workshops, 193

craft, 264–265

educational, 61, 149, 151, 193, 295

on historical texts, 30, 94

language documentation, 177, 194, 209

language learning, 94

literacy, 220

music, 261

orthography, 220

revitalization, 76, 180, 182–183, 191, 293

teacher training, 309, 311

technology, 316

for tourists, 147, 151

worldview, Indigenous, 17, 137, 172, 233, 242, 253, 257

choices in, 223, 225

development of, 36, 62, 173, 200, 222, 228

educational factors in, 230

and education, 126, 158, 221

and identity, 231

and language use, 165, 221

obsolete, 205, 274

and orality, 158, 192, 220–221, 226

and policies, 167, 188

and religion, 221, 224, 229–230

standardization of, 37, 167, 229–231, 274

symbolic use of, 220, 228, 231

and technology, 307

traditions of, 30, 118

writing systems, 118, 193, 229, 313

writing creative, 94, 233, 275, 308

Wymysiöeryś, 27, 59, 86, 99–100, 133, 140, 148, 155, 171, 176, 193, 231–232, 260, 284, See also Wilamowice

Xavante, 280

Yanesha, 181

Yiddish, 229

Yoruba, 279

youth, 28, 126

disconnection of, 101

initiatives of, 100, 102, 151, 258, 276–277, 287, 289

involvement of, 26, 39, 42, 56, 63, 102, 151, 172, 180, 209, 259–261, 276, 278, 280–281, 285, 288, 315–316, 318

Yucatec Maya, 85–86, 90, 93, 96, 188, 194, 275, 277, 282, 289

Zaiwa, 193

Zoque, 289

Zulu, 145

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