Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-ttngx Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-25T21:16:25.728Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 3 - Selling a Perfect Vulva? Selling a ‘Normal’ Vulva!

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 February 2019

Sarah M. Creighton
Affiliation:
University College London Hospital
Lih-Mei Liao
Affiliation:
University College London Hospital
Get access

Summary

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Chapter
Information
Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery
Solution to What Problem?
, pp. 23 - 32
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Scott, E. A surgeon says women are getting designer vagina surgery to look better in leggings. Metrocouk. 6 October 2017. Available from: http://metro.co.uk/2017/10/06/a-surgeon-says-women-are-getting-designer-vagina-surgery-to-look-better-in-leggings-6981111/Google Scholar
Braun, V. Rethinking Ruskin’s wife’s vulva. In Elias, AS, Gill, R, Scharff, C (eds), Aesthetic labour: Rethinking beauty politics in neoliberalism. Basingstoke: Palgrave; 2017, pp. 6782.Google Scholar
Crann, SE, Jenkins, A, Money, DM, O’Doherty, KC. Women’s genital body work: Health, hygiene and beauty practices in the production of idealized female genitalia. Feminism Psychol. 2017:0959353517711964.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braun, V. Female genital cutting around the globe: A matter of reproductive justice? In Chrisler, JC (ed), Reproductive justice: A global concern. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger; 2012, pp. 2955.Google Scholar
Green, FJ. From clitoridectomies to ‘designer vaginas’: The medical construction of heteronormative female bodies and sexuality through female genital cutting. Sex Evol Gender. 2005;7(2):153–87.Google Scholar
McDougall, LJ. Towards a clean slit: How medicine and notions of normality are shaping female genital aesthetics. Cult Health Sex. 2013;15(7):774–87.Google Scholar
Moran, C, Lee, C. Selling genital cosmetic surgery to healthy women: A multimodal discourse analysis of Australian surgical websites. Crit Discourse Stud. 2013;10(4):373–91.Google Scholar
Tiefer, L. Female genital cosmetic surgery: Freakish or inevitable? Analysis from medical marketing, bioethics, and feminist theory. Feminism Psychol. 2008;18(4):466–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Triffin, M. WARNING: These doctors may be dangerous to your vagina. Cosmopolitan. 2010 July;159–61.Google Scholar
Tiefer, L. Activism on the medicalization of sex and female genital cosmetic surgery by the New View Campaign in the United States. Reprod Health Matters. 2010;18(35):5663.Google Scholar
Braun, V. “The women are doing it for themselves”: The rhetoric of choice and agency around female genital ‘cosmetic surgery’. Aust Feminist Stud. 2009;24(60):233–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braun, V. Female genital cosmetic surgery: A critical review of current knowledge and contemporary debates. J Womens Health. 2010;19(7). Available from: http://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1728Google Scholar
Braun, V. Female genital cutting. In Teo, T (ed), Encyclopedia of critical psychology. New York: Springer; 2014, pp. 693–7.Google Scholar
Braun, V. Female genital cosmetic surgery. In Whelehan, P, Bolin, A (eds), International encyclopedia of human sexuality, Vol. I. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015, pp. 372–4.Google Scholar
Braun, V, The, Tiefer L. ‘designer vagina’ and the pathologisation of female genital diversity: Interventions for change. Radical Psychol. 2010;18(1):[online]. Available from: www.radicalpsychology.org/vol8-1/brauntiefer.htmlGoogle Scholar
Braun, V. In search of (better) sexual pleasure: Female genital ‘cosmetic’ surgery. Sexualities. 2005;8(4):407–24.Google Scholar
Braun, V. Selling the ‘perfect’ vulva. In Heyes, C, Jones, M (eds), Cosmetic surgery: A feminist primer. Farnham, UK: Ashgate; 2009, pp. 133–49.Google Scholar
Braun, V, Wilkinson, S. Liability or asset? Women talk about the vagina. Psychol Women Sect Rev. 2003;5(2):2842.Google Scholar
Fahs, B. Genital panics: Constructing the vagina in women’s qualitative narratives about pubic hair, menstrual sex, and vaginal self-image. Body Image. 2014;11(3):210–8.Google Scholar
Moran, C, Lee, C. ‘Everyone wants a vagina that looks less like a vagina’: Australian women’s views on dissatisfaction with genital appearance. J Health Psychol. 2016:1359105316637588.Google Scholar
Mullinax, M, Herbenick, D, Schick, V, Sanders, SA, Reece, M. In their own words: A qualitative content analysis of women’s and men’s preferences for women’s genitals. Sex Educ. 2015;15(4):421–36.Google Scholar
Herbenick, D, Schick, V, Reece, M, Sanders, S, Dodge, B, Fortenberry, JD. The Female Genital Self‐Image Scale (FGSIS): Results from a nationally representative probability sample of women in the United States. J Sex Med. 2011;8(1):158–66.Google Scholar
Fashemi, B, Delaney, ML, Onderdonk, AB, Fichorova, RN. Effects of feminine hygiene products on the vaginal mucosal biome. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2013;24(1):19703.Google Scholar
Jenkins, AL, Crann, SE, Money, DM, O’Doherty, KC. “Clean and fresh”: Understanding women’s use of vaginal hygiene products. Sex Roles. 2018;78(9–10):697709.Google Scholar
Braun, V, Kitzinger, C. ‘Snatch’, ‘hole’, or ‘honey pot’? Semantic categories and the problem of non-specificity in female genital slang. J Sex Res. 2001;38:146–58.Google Scholar
Li, AY, Braun, V. Pubic hair and its removal: A practice beyond the personal. Feminism Psychol. 2017;27(3):336–56.Google Scholar
Elias, A, Gill, R, Scharff, C. Aesthetic labour: Beauty politics in neoliberalism. In Elias, AS, Gill, R, Scharff, C (eds), Aesthetic labour: Rethinking beauty politics in neoliberalism. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2017, pp. 349.Google Scholar
Giles, D. Online discussion. Forums. In Braun, V, Clarke, V, Gray, D (eds), Collecting qualitative data: A practical guide to textual, media and virtual techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2017, pp. 166–88.Google Scholar
Hookway, N. Archives of everyday life. In Braun, V, Clarke, V, Gray, D (eds), Collecting qualitative data: A practical guide to textual, media and virtual techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2017, pp. 144–65.Google Scholar
Braun, V, Clarke, V. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol. 2006;3(2):77101.Google Scholar
Howarth, C, Hayes, J, Simonis, M, Temple-Smith, M. ‘Everything’s neatly tucked away’: Young women’s views on desirable vulval anatomy. Cult Health Sex. 2016:116.Google Scholar
Howarth, H, Sommer, V, Jordan, FM. Visual depictions of female genitalia differ depending on source. J Med Humanit. 2010;36(2):75–9.Google Scholar
Lloyd, J, Crouch, NS, Minto, CL, Liao, L-M, Creighton, SM. Female genital appearance: ‘Normality’ unfolds. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2005;112:643–6.Google Scholar
Chrisler, JC. Leaks, lumps, and lines: Stigma and women’s bodies. Psychol Women Q. 2011;35(2):202–14.Google Scholar
Fahs, B. The dreaded body: Disgust and the production of “appropriate” femininity. J Gender Stud. 2017;26(2):184–96.Google Scholar
Drysdale, K. Healing it to a single crease. Hungry Beast: ABC Australia; 2010.Google Scholar
Turshen, M. Women’s health movements: A global force for change. New York: Palgrave Macmillan; 2007.Google Scholar
Meltzer, M. Forget body positivity: How about body neutrality? The Cut. March 1, 2017. Available from: www.thecut.com/2017/03/forget-body-positivity-how-about-body-neutrality.htmlGoogle Scholar
Gill, R, Elias, AS. ‘Awaken your incredible’: Love your body discourses and postfeminist contradictions. Int J Media Cult Polit. 2014;10(2):179–88.Google Scholar
Horrocks, E, Iyer, J, Askern, A, Becuzzi, N, Vangaveti, V, Rane, A. Individual male perception of female genitalia. Int Urogynecol J. 2016;27(2):307–13.Google Scholar
Mazloomdoost, D, Crisp, CC, Westermann, LB, et al. Survey of male perceptions regarding the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213(5):731.e1731.e9.Google Scholar
Holland, J, Ramazanoglu, C, Sharpe, S, Thomson, R. The male in the head: Young people, heterosexuality and power. London: The Tufnell Press; 1998.Google Scholar
Jones, B, Nurka, C. Labiaplasty and pornography: A preliminary investigation. Porn Stud. 2015;2(1):6275.Google Scholar
Sharp, G, Tiggemann, M, Mattiske, J. Predictors of consideration of labiaplasty: An extension of the tripartite influence model of beauty ideals. Psychol Women Q. 2015;39(2):182–93.Google Scholar
Burr, V. Social constructionism. 2nd ed. London: Psychology Press; 2003.Google Scholar
Moran, C, Lee, C. What’s normal? Influencing women’s perceptions of normal genitalia: An experiment involving exposure to modified and nonmodified images. BJOG. 2014;121(6):761–6.Google Scholar
Liao, L-M, Taghinejadi, N, Creighton, SM. An analysis of the content and clinical implications of online advertisements for female genital cosmetic surgery. BMJ Open. 2012;2(6):e001908.Google Scholar
Mowat, H, McDonald, K, Dobson, AS, Fisher, J, Kirkman, M. The contribution of online content to the promotion and normalisation of female genital cosmetic surgery: A systematic review of the literature. BMC Womens Health. 2015;15(1):110.Google Scholar
Ashong, AC, Batta, HE. Sensationalising the female pudenda: An examination of public communication of aesthetic genital surgery. Global J Health Sci. 2012;5(2):153–65.Google Scholar
Holliday, R, Bell, D, Jones, M, Hardy, K, Hunter, E, Probyn, E, et al. Beautiful face, beautiful place: Relational geographies and gender in cosmetic surgery tourism websites. Gender Place Cult. 2015;22(1):90106.Google Scholar
Avalos, L. Female genital mutilation and designer vaginas in Britain: Crafting an effective legal and policy framework. Vanderbilt JTransnatl Law. 2015;48:621706.Google Scholar
Forster, K. Labiaplasty: Vaginal surgery ‘world’s fastest-growing cosmetic procedure’, say plastic surgeons. Independent. 12 July 2017. Available from: www.independent.co.uk/news/health/labiaplasty-vagina-surgery-cosmetic-procedure-plastic-study-international-society-aesthetic-plastic-a7837181.htmlGoogle Scholar
Holloway, K. The labiaplasty boom: Why are women desperate for the perfect vagina? Alternet. 13 February 2015. Available from: www.alternet.org/news-amp-politics/labiaplasty-boom-why-are-women-desperate-perfect-vaginaGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, R. New survey finds more women want female genital cosmetic surgery. Newscomau. 5 May 2016. Available from: www.news.com.au/lifestyle/beauty/cosmetic-surgery/new-survey-finds-more-women-want-female-genital-cosmetic-surgery/news-story/1e45b24b22a7676ddbcf0a44447a3554Google Scholar
Veale, D, Naismith, I, Eshkevari, E, et al. Psychosexual outcome after labiaplasty: A prospective case-comparison study. Int Urogynecol J. 2014;25(6):831–9.Google Scholar
Motakef, S, Rodriguez-Feliz, J, Chung, MT, Ingargiola, MJ, Wong, VW, Patel, A. Vaginal labiaplasty: Current practices and a simplified classification system for labial protrusion. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;135(3):774–88.Google Scholar
Goodman, MP. Female genital cosmetic and plastic surgery: A review. J Sex Med. 2011;8(6):1813–25.Google Scholar
Alter, G. Botched labiaplasty revision surgery: About the procedure 2017. Available from: www.labiaplastyrevisionsurgeon.com/botched-labiaplasty/Google Scholar
Alter, GJ. A new technique for aesthetic labia minora reduction. Ann Plast Surg. 1998;40(3):287–90.Google Scholar
Abbed, T, Mussat, F, Cohen, M. Origami model for central wedge labiaplasty: A simple educational model with video tutorial. Aesthet Surg J. 2017;37(10):NP132-NP6.Google Scholar
International Society of Cosmetogynecology. 2014. Available from: www.iscgyn.com/en/aboutusGoogle Scholar
Barbara, G, Facchin, F, Meschia, M, Vercellini, P. “The first cut is the deepest”: A psychological, sexological and gynecological perspective on female genital cosmetic surgery. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2015;94(9):915–20.Google Scholar
Bioethics. NCo. Cosmetic procedures: Ethical issues. 2017.Google Scholar
Edmonds, A. Can medicine be aesthetic? Med Anthropol Q. 2013;27(2):233–52.Google Scholar
Committee on Gynecologic Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 378: Vaginal “rejuvenation” and cosmetic vaginal procedures. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110(3):737–8.Google Scholar
The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Vaginal ‘rejuvenation’ and cosmetic vaginal procedures. New College Statement C-Gyn 24. Melbourne: The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists; 2008.Google Scholar
Shaw, D, Lefebvre, G, Bouchard, C, et al. Female genital cosmetic surgery. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2013;35(12):1108–12.Google Scholar
Michala, L, Koliantzaki, S, Antsaklis, A. Protruding labia minora: Abnormal or just uncool? J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol. 2011;32(3):154–6.Google Scholar
Committee on Gynecologic Practice, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 668: Breast and labial surgery in adolescents. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;129:e17–9.Google Scholar
Karras, N. Petals. San Diego, CA: Crystal River Publishing; 2003.Google Scholar
McCartney, J. Great Wall of Vagina. Fine Art Studios. Available from: www.greatwallofvagina.co.uk/homeGoogle Scholar
Sharp, G, Tiggemann, M. Educating women about normal female genital appearance variation. Body Image. 2016;16:70–8.Google Scholar
Frischherz, M. Affective agency and transformative shame: The voices behind the great wall of vagina. Womens Stud Commun. 2015;38(3):251–72.Google Scholar
Andrikopoulou, M, Michala, L, Creighton, S, Liao, L. The normal vulva in medical textbooks. J Obstet Gynaecol. 2013;33(7):648–50.Google Scholar
Reitsma, W, Mourits, MJ, Koning, M, Pascal, A, van der Lei, B. No (wo) man is an island—the influence of physicians’ personal predisposition to labia minora appearance on their clinical decision making: A cross‐sectional survey. J Sex Med. 2011;8(8):2377–85.Google Scholar
Veale, D, Eshkevari, E, Ellison, N, et al. Psychological characteristics and motivation of women seeking labiaplasty. Psychol Med. 2014;44(3):555–66.Google Scholar
Crouch, NS, Deans, R, Michala, L, Liao, LM, Creighton, SM. Clinical characteristics of well women seeking labial reduction surgery: A prospective study. BJOG. 2011;118(12):1507–10.Google Scholar
Braun, V, Wilkinson, S. Socio-cultural representations of the vagina. J Reprod Infant Psychol. 2001;19:1732.Google Scholar
Rodrigues, S. From vaginal exception to exceptional vagina: The biopolitics of female genital cosmetic surgery. Sexualities. 2012;15(7):778–94.Google Scholar
Vandenburg, T, Braun, V. ‘Basically, it’s sorcery for your vagina’: Unpacking Western representations of vaginal steaming. Cult Health Sex. 2017;19(4):470–85.Google Scholar
Oak Gall for Vaginal Tightening and Rejuvenation FEMALE RENEWAL SOLUTION; 2017. Available from: http://intivar.greenliveforever.com/oak_gall_vaginal_tightening.htmlGoogle Scholar
Weiss, S. Health. 17 August 2017. Available from: www.self.com/story/vaginal-products-and-treatmentsGoogle Scholar
Woman turns discarded vagina skin into jewelry. The Province. 1 October 2017. Available from: http://theprovince.com/news/world/woman-turns-discarded-vagina-skin-into-jewelryGoogle Scholar
Cihantimur, B, Herold, C. Genital beautification: A concept that offers more than reduction of the labia minora. Aesth Plast Surg. 2013;37(6):1128–33.Google Scholar
Spettel, S, White, MD. The portrayal of J. Marion Sims’ controversial surgical legacy. J Urol. 2011;185(6):2424–7.Google Scholar
Peck, T. Labour calls for public inquiry into vaginal mesh implants. Independent. 17 October 2017. Available from: www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/vaginal-mesh-implants-surgical-mesh-labour-public-inquiry-sharon-hodgson-a8005786.htmlGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×