Two Nicotiana tabacum L. cultivars, ‘North Carolina 88’ and ‘Coker 319′, were grown in a charcoal-filtered greenhouse and treated with three different herbicides according to the herbicide labels. Labeled rates (X) for diphenamid (N,N-dimethyl-2,2-diphenylacetamide), isopropalin (2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropylcumidine), and pebulate (S-propyl butylethylthiocarbamate) were 9.2 kg/ha, 2.3 kg/ha, and 6.2 kg/ha, respectively. Three weeks after treatment with 1/2X, X, or 2X rates of herbicide, half of the plants were fumigated with 15 μl/liter ozone for 2.5 h for four consecutive days. North Carolina 88 and Coker 319 grew equally well and were equally sensitive to ozone injury. Ozone reduced plant height and levels of reducing sugars and total nonstructural carbohydrates of both cultivars. Isopropalin, at X and 2X, reduced the ozone sensitivity and growth of both cultivars, while the X rate of pebulate reduced the ozone sensitivity of North Carolina 88. The chemical composition of the plants was not correlated with the sensitivity of the tobacco plants to ozone-induced injury. The major factors governing fleck intensity, growth, and chemical compositions were ozone and herbicide treatments.

Toxicological investigations were conducted on galenia [Galenia pubescens (Eckl. and Zeyh.) Druce], an introduced species of the family Aizoaceae. One lot of field-grown galenia assayed 2.5% nitrate (as KNO3) and 6.1% soluble oxalates. Three sheep were acutely poisoned after they were gavaged with this plant. Galenia grown in nutrient solution assayed 6% nitrate and 11.3% soluble oxalates. Chicks fed this material died of nitrate and oxalate poisoning. Galenia may accumulate toxic levels of both oxalates and nitrates and thus should be classed as a poisonous plant that would be considered hazardous to humans and livestock.

Strawberries (Fragaria X ananassa Duch. ‘Midway’) were grown in the field with and without the use of black plastic mulch. One to three postplant applications of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)-glycine] at 2.2, 4.5, and 5.6 kg/ha or paraquat (1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium ion) at 0.6, 1.1, and 2.2 kg/ha were made as directed sprays between the rows in 1976 and 1977. Glyphosate was generally more effective than paraquat for controlling weeds during the entire growing season, although both gave adequate short-term control. When late-season applications were made during 1976, a residual weed control effect was observed from both herbicides during early 1977. Crop yield, fruit size, and fruit quality were not affected by either herbicide. Similar results were obtained in a separate experiment in which strawberries were grown utilizing plastic mulch.

Seven herbicides were applied to the soil surface or subsurface for control of honey mesquite [Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC. var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell] and Macartney rose (Rosa bracteata Wendl.). Liquid formulations were applied in bands about 1 cm wide, 1.2 m or more apart, and granule or sphere formulations were applied on the soil surface either broadcast or in rows 1.2 m or more apart. On honey mesquite, karbutilate [tert-butylcarbamic acid ester with 3(m-hydroxy-phenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea] and tebuthiuron {N-[5-(1,1-dimethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-N,N′-dimethylurea} were the most effective herbicides with subsurface spray injections being generally more effective than surface applications. On honey mesquite, differences among row spacing treatments with liquid, granule, or sphere formulations of karbutilate were generally either small or insignificant. Roller chopping reduced the honey mesquite canopy but did not influence the percentage of plants killed by karbutilate at rates of 4.5 kg/ha and below. Bromacil (5-bromo-3-sec-butyl-6-methyluracil), diuron [3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea], picloram (4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid), prometon [2,4-bis(isopropylamino)-6-methoxy-s-triazine], and 2,3,6-TBA (2,3,6-trichlorobenzoic acid) generally were ineffective as soil treatments for controlling honey mesquite. Of all the herbicides evaluated on Macartney rose, only picloram at 4.5 kg/ha and tebuthiuron at 2.2 and 4.5 kg/ha, as soil treatments, killed a significant number of plants.

Experiments were conducted to develop systems for control of American germander [Teucrium canadense L. var. virginicum (L.) Eat.] in corn (Zea mays L. ‘Trojan TXS 105A’). Soil-incorporated, preemergence, and postemergence herbicide treatments were evaluated in greenhouse studies. Soil incorporated applications of EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) + R-25788 (N,N-diallyl-2,2-dichloroacetamide), atrazine [2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-triazine] and alachlor [2-chloro-2′,6′-diethyl-N-(methoxymethyl)acetanilide] effectively reduced its growth. Preemergence applications of alachlor and atrazine did not control American germander. Postemergence applications of the dimethylamine salt of 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid] the butoxyethanol ester of 2,4-D and dicamba (3,6-dichoro-o-anisic acid) gave 20 to 41% control. Atrazine + crop oil gave 76 to 84% control. Soil-incorporated treatments of atrazine or EPTC + R-25788 controlled American germander better than alchlor when the rhizomes were planted at depths of 2.5 and 10 cm in greenhouse studies. In field trials American germander was a severe competitor in corn, especially when soil moisture was limited, and had the capability of substantially reducing corn yields when not controlled. EPTC + R-25788 and atrazine applied alone or in combinations as preplant incorporated treatments increased yield significantly and controlled 85 to 99% of the American germander 72 weeks after planting. Atrazine + oil was the only effective postemergence treatment.

A survey was made in the United States to determine the extent of the infestations of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) and other weeds of economic importance in the Euphorbiaceae. From introductions about 100 yr ago, leafy spurge is now found in 458 counties in 26 states from coast to coast. The infestations are out of control in some states, and biological control is mentioned as a possible solution to the problem.

Regional pine seedling tolerance experiments were conducted on five pine (Pinus spp.) species at ten forest nurseries in 1974. Similar studies in 1975 included four pine species at nine locations. From these studies, herbicides appearing safe for preemergence use are bifenox [methyl 5-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)-2-nitrobenzoate] at 1.7, 3.4, and 6.7 kg/ha; butralin [4-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-N-(1-methylpropyl)-2,6-dinitrobenzenamine] at 2.2, 3.4, 4.5, and 6.7 kg/ha, napropamide [2-(α-naphthoxy)-N,N-diethylpropionamide] at 1.7 kg/ha; napropamide at 1.1 kg/ha plus bifenox at 3.4 kg/ha; dinitramine (N4,N4-diethyl-α,α,α-trifluoro-3,5-dinitrotoluene-2,4-diamine) at 0.37 and 0.74 kg/ha; diphenamid (N,N-dimethyl-2,2-diphenylacetamide) at 4.5 kg/ha, trifluralin (α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-p-toluidine) at 1.1 kg/ha; and profluralin [N-(cyclopropylmethyl)-α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N-propyl-p-toluidine] at 1.1 and 2.2 kg/ha. Southern pine seedling tolerance to oryzalin (3,5-dinitro-N4,N4-dipropylsulfanilamide) was unacceptable at 1.1 and 2.2 kg/ha. Napropamide severely stunted seedlings at 6.7 kg/ha but affected seedlings only slightly at 3.4 kg/ha.

Dinitramine (N4,N4-diethyl-α,α,α-trifluoro-3,5-dinitrotoluene-2,4-diamine) applied at 0.37 kg/ha controlled black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) better than did trifluralin (α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-p-toluidine) at 0.56 kg/ha. Dinitramine applied at 0.37 kg/ha was equal to 0.56 kg/ha of trifluralin for control of green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.], yellow foxtail [Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.], and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). Dinitramine produced more root aberrations in sugarbeets (Beta vulgaris L. ‘Mono Hy D2′) than did trifluralin when sprayed on nonexposed or exposed hypotcotyledonary tissues of seedlings. When soil surrounded most of the hypocotyls at the time of application, 0.56 kg/ha of dinitramine affected 57 to 87% of the roots, whereas the same rate of trifluralin affected 1 to 8% of the roots. When the hypocotyls were exposed at the time of application, 100% of the roots were affected by dinitramine compared to 25% of all roots treated with trifluralin. Dinitramine applied at 0.37, 0.42, and 0.56 kg/ha lowered the quality and yield of sugarbeet roots, with the highest rate significantly reducing percentage purity, percentage sucrose, and recoverable sucrose. Trifluralin did not affect these parameters.

Purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.) and yellow nutsedge (C. esculentus L.) appeared to be equally acceptable for oviposition by caged Bactra verutana Zeller, but purple nutsedge was significantly more suitable as a host: 90% of the larvae survived to maturity on purple nutsedge compared with 65% on yellow nutsedge. Responses of the plant species to both larval feeding injury and plant density were similar but purple nutsedge tended to be injured more than yellow nutsedge. At a high shoot density (nine shoots per pot), production of tubers by purple nutsedge was more adversely affected by feeding of five larvae per shoot than was production by yellow nutsedge: tuber dry weights were reduced 93 and 80% and numbers of tubers per pot were reduced 77 and 62%, respectively. Production of inflorescences was greatly reduced in both species. The effect of B. verutana on inflorescences may be more important for yellow nutsedge, which is generally considered to reproduce freely by seeds. Both species of nutsedge probably would be about equally affected by augmentation of B. verutana populations as a method of biological control.

Response of weeds and sugarbeets (Beta vulgaris L. ‘Mono Hy D2′) to preplanting treatments of mixtures of cycloate (S-ethyl N-ethylthiocyclohexanecarbamate) and ethofumesate [(±)-2-ethoxy-2,3-dihydro-3,3-dimethyl-5-benzofuranyl methanesulfonate] was evaluated in five field studies. A mixture containing 1.7 kg/ha of each herbicide reduced the stand of common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.) 90%, green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.] and yellow foxtail [Setaria lutescens (Weigel) Hubb.] 97 to 99%, kochia [Kochia scoparia (L.) Schrad.] 64 to 77%, and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) 82 to 99%. The response of weeds to preplanting applications of mixtures of cycloate and ethofumesate was independent of soil texture, whereas response of sugarbeets was dependent on soil texture. The herbicide mixtures significantly reduced the pre-thinning stand of sugarbeets and root and sucrose yields on two sandy loams, but not on a clay loam.

Investigations were conducted on Euglena gracilis Klebs strain Z to determine the effects of fluometuron [1,2-dimethyl-3-(α,α,α-trifluoro-m-tolyl)urea], MSMA (monosodium methanearsonate), glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine], and metribuzin [4-amino-6-tert-butyl-3-(methylthio)-as-triazin-5(4H)-one] on cell number, chlorophyll content, and photosynthesis. Euglena cell number was reduced by 65% or more after 48 h with fluometuron levels above 4 X 10-5M. MSMA at 6 X 10-4M reduced cell number 42% after 144 h exposure. Chlorophyll content was reduced 33 to 80% by metribuzin levels of 2 X 10-6M or greater, and fluometuron inhibited chlorophyll content by 30% or more from 4 X 10-6M or greater concentrations. Chlorophyll was reduced 21 to 69% by treatment with glyphosate at 3 X 10-3M, but MSMA appeared to have little effect on chlorophyll except at the high level of 6 X 10-4M at 48 h. Photosynthesis was reduced 50% or more with metribuzin levels above 9 X 10-7M and with fluometuron above 9 X 10-5M. MSMA reduced photosynthesis by 20% at the 6 X 10-3M level, and glyphosate slightly reduced photosynthesis at levels below 1.2 X 10-4M but slightly stimulated it above that level. Chronic effects (Euglena exposed to herbicides 96 h prior to measurement) on photosynthesis indicated a more pronounced reduction from fluometuron than from short-term exposure, little change with glyphosate, but less reduction with metribuzin than from short-term exposure. Metribuzin caused increased respiration rates of 100 to 200% after 100 min of exposure. Respiration was stimulated 20% by glyphosate and relatively unaffected by the other compounds. Removal of Euglena from metribuzin- and fluometuron-treated media to non-treated media resulted in increased levels of chlorophyll to near that of the control. These results suggest that use of these herbicides is not detrimental to non-target algae if the exposure is not intensive.

The study was conducted to determine the seasonal and diurnal water stress of soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr. ‘Lee 74′] grown under intraspecific competition (competition between plants of the same species) and interspecific competition (competition between plants of different species) with common cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum Wallr.). Midday xylem potentials decreased as the season progressed and were lower in common cocklebur during vegetative growth of soybean and in soybean during reproductive growth. For a given species differences in xylem potential due to mode of competition were small. In the diurnal studies xylem potential for each species decreased to a minimum in the early afternoon but recovered to the original pre-dawn values at night. As the season progressed leaf xylem potential (a) decreased at a greater rate, (b) decreased sooner in the day, and (c) recovered at a slower rate. It was shown that differences in xylem potential between soybean and common cocklebur on a given day were small. Greater diffusive resistance values generally were found with soybean than with common cocklebur and with each species grown under interspecific competition.

Cell suspension cultures of white clover (Trifolium repens L. ‘Regal Ladino’) were treated with 2,4-D [(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid], 2,4-DB [4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)butyric acid], 2,4,5-T [(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)acetic acid], 2,4,5-TP [2-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid], and 2,4,5-TB [4-(2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy)butyric acid]. Cell population densities were monitored throughout the treatment period and herbicide remaining in the cells and culture medium was extracted and quantified at the termination of the treatment. Herbicide tolerance increased in cell populations which were conditioned by pretreatment with 2,4-DB and 2,4,5-T. However, 2,4-DB was rapidly degraded by all cell populations regardless of pretreatment. White clover cell suspension cultures treated with 2,4-D, 2,4-DB, 2,4,5-T, 2,4,5-TP and 2,4,5-TB metabolized the homologs, according to the following sequence: butyric acidåpropionic acidåacetic acid homologs. There was no difference in the rate of degradation of similar homologs of the 2,4-dichloro- and 2,4,5-trichloro- analogs.

Competition of yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.) with corn (Zea mays L.) was evaluated in the field at various yellow nutsedge densities over a 3-yr period. A relationship between yellow nutsedge density (shoots/m2) and percentage yield reduction revealed an 8% yield reduction for every 100 shoots/m2. Two 3-yr studies were conducted to determine the most effective combination of preplant-incorporated, postemergence, or postemergence-directed treatments for yellow nutsedge control in corn. The preplant incorporated treatments were alachlor [2-chloro-2′,6′-diethyl-N-(methoxymethyl)acetanilide], EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate), or nothing; postemergence treatments were bentazon [3-isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-(4) 3H-one 2,2-dioxide], two cultivations, or nothing; and the postemergence-directed treatments were ametryn [2-(ethylamino)-4-(isopropylamino)-6-(methylthio)-s-triazine] or nothing. One preplant-incorporated treatment of EPTC or alachlor prevented yield reductions from yellow nutsedge competition. When no control was practiced, yields were reduced 17% in a moderate yellow nutsedge infestation (initially infested with 300 tubers/m2) and 41% in a heavy infestation (initially infested with 1200 tubers/m2). Yields were reduced 7 to 8% in the moderate infestation when no preplant-incorporated treatments were used regardless of whether postemergence or postemergence-directed treatments were also used. After 1 yr, all control measures resulted in less tuber density than no control measures, but all control treatments had essentially similar tuber densities. After the second year, several herbicide treatments were as effective as hand weeding in reducing tuber density. At least 2 yr of effective control treatments were required to reduce tubers to 20% of the original density, and 3 yr of treatment to reduce the density to 15% of the original density. No combination of treatments, including hand weeding, eliminated tubers after 3 yr.

The metabolism of 2,4-DB [4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)butyric acid] in cell suspension cultures of white clover (Trifolium repens L. ‘Regal Ladino’) was investigated using (ring)- 14C 2,4-DB. The herbicide and its 14C-labeled metabolites were isolated from treated cells and medium after 48 h by partition and thin layer chromatography (TLC). The major portion of the radiolabel was in the glycoside fraction (47%) and incorporated into the cell structural material (34%). The remainder of the 14C remained either as the parent herbicide (8%) or an amino acid conjugate of 2,4-DB (10%).

Hemp sesbania [Sesbania exaltata (Raf.) Cory] was more tolerant to induced moisture stress than soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] with osmotic potentials of −4 and −2 bars, respectively, required to reduce germination. Hemp sesbania germinated at temperatures of 15 to 40 C with optimum germination occurring at 30 to 40 40 C. Seed dormancy was caused by impermeable seed coats. Acid scarification of 45 and 60 min and mechanical scarification 20 and 30 s gave maximum germination. Scarification increased water absorption. Light had no effect on germination. As oxygen content increased from 0 to 21%, germination of unscarified seed increased from 5 to 39%, but germination did not increase as oxygen increased from 21 to 100%. Hemp sesbania and soybean emerged from depths up to 12 cm with maximum emergence occurring at the 1- and 3-cm depths. Hemp sesbania emerged faster and in greater numbers at all depths than soybean.

The influence of soil moisture stress, temperature, and bulk density on the germination and seedling emergence of downy brome (Bromus tectorum L.) was investigated in the laboratory. Reductions in soil matric potential from -2 to -16 bars markedly reduced the percentage and rate of emergence. Seedling emergence was better at constant than at alternating temperatures. At high matric potentials, the rate of emergence was accelerated by warmer soil temperature (20 C), while at very low matric potentials, the percentage and rate of seedling emergence were least restricted at cooler temperatures (10 and 15 C). Soil matric potential did not influence the percentage or rate of emergence of seedlings grown from seed lots harvested during climatologically diverse years. Seedling emergence but not germination was inhibited by increased levels of soil compaction. Soil compaction times moisture interaction were not observed, as measured by final seedling emergence.

Twenty herbicide treatments were evaluated on conventional-till (plow, disc, and harrow), minimum-till (disc only), and no-till planted soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] from 1976 through 1978 at the Belleville Research Center in St. Clair County, Illinois. The soil type was a Weir silt loam (Typic Ochraqualf) characterized by poor internal drainage and 1.2% organic matter. Weed population by species, weed control, and soybean population, injury, and yield were obtained. Fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.) and giant foxtail (Setaria faberi Herrm.) were the dominant species in all tillage systems, exceeding 1 million plants/ha in the conventional and no-till plots. These species and ivyleaf morningglory [Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq.] were the most difficult to control each year. Weed control was the poorest in the no-till plots because of the large size of the weeds at the time of herbicide application, insufficient rainfall following, and because the plots were not cultivated. The soybean population was equal in all tillage systems except in 1976 when the no-till population exceeded that in the other tillage systems. Treatments that included oryzalin (3,5-dinitro-N4,N4-dipropylsulfanilamide) caused 42 and 35% soybean injury in the 1976 minimum and no-till plots, respectively. Postemergence-applied naptalam (N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid) plus dinoseb (2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol) caused leaf burn each year that ranged from 5 to 35% but all plants recovered within several weeks of application. The seedbed tillage method and herbicide treatments did not significantly affect soybean yields in 1976 when all the herbicides were effective. No-till yields in 1977 and 1978 were substantially lower than yields in conventional and minimum-till plots because of poor weed control. Soybean yields were 2506, 2466, and 1714 kg/ha in the conventional-till, minimum-till, and no-till plots, respectively, when averaged over the 3 yr and 20 herbicide treatments.

A 2-yr study was conducted to determine the influence of early and late soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] planting dates on the competitiveness of velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti Medic). Velvetleaf was planted at densities of one plant per 61 and 30 cm of row, and competition ranged from 4 weeks to full season. Soybean planting dates were mid-May and late-June. Velvetleaf emerging with soybeans in mid-May were twice as competitive as those emerging with soybeans planted in late-June. A density of one velvetleaf per 30 cm of row competing full season reduced soybean yields 27% for the early and only 14% for the late planting date. The competitive difference was due to the short-day photoperiodic response of velvetleaf. Although the early growth stages of soybeans are more competitive than those of velvetleaf, 10 weeks after emergence velvetleaf competition reduced soybean growth and development. Velvetleaf does not appear to be a potential major problem in Arkansas for soybeans planted in June due to its photoperiodic response and late season competitiveness. However, the weed could present problems for soybeans planted early, especially when an early maturing variety is used.

Several inorganic salts added to the spray solution reduced the herbicidal activity of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]. Of the salts tested, iron and aluminum reduced herbicidal activity most. Reductions by calcium and zinc were moderately severe; by magnesium, moderate; by potassium and sodium, none. The reduction in phytotoxicity seems to be caused by cations, but factors other than valence also may be involved.

Reduction in phytotoxicity was related to salt concentration and spray volume. Glyphosate at 0.84 kg/ha in 93 to 374 L/ha distilled water killed test plants. Tap water was an equally effective carrier at 93 and 187 L/ha volumes, but was significantly less effective at the 374 L/ha volume. Activity decreased as the molar concentration of CaCl2 increased to 0.01. Herbicidal activity was eliminated at 0.01 M and 374 L/ha; however, concentrations of CaCl2 exceeding 0.04 M reversed the trend and reacted similarly to a 0.005 M solution, which approximates the minimum hardness of most ground waters in Kansas.