Kitchen gardens may improve family food security and nutrition. While these gardens are the domain of women in Afghanistan, women face unique challenges accessing training and resources to maximize small-scale agricultural output. The University of Maryland's Women in Agriculture Project builds capacity among female extension educators to work with vulnerable women to implement and maintain kitchen gardens. Extension educators use experiential methods to teach vegetable gardening, apiculture, small-scale poultry production, post-harvest handling and processing, nutrition and marketing through workshops, demonstration gardens and farmer field schools. This paper explores contextual factors related to women's food security and agricultural opportunities, describes key project activities and approaches and discusses project success and challenges, sustainability and implications for future programs.

Conventional soil management systems (SMS) use synthetic inputs to maximize crop productivity, which leads to environmental degradation. Organic SMS is an alternative that is claimed to prevent or mitigate such negative environmental impacts. Vegetable production systems rely on frequent tillage to prepare beds and manage weeds, and are also characterized by little crop residue input. The use of crop residues and organic fertilizers may counteract the negative impacts of intensive vegetable production. To test this hypothesis, we evaluated the effect of sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. rugosa) residue incorporation in a corn–cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) rotation on crop yields, nutrient uptake, weed biomass and soil nutrients for organic and conventional SMS in two contrasting soil types (a Chromosol and a Vertosol). Yields of corn and cabbage under the organic SMS were not lower than the conventional SMS, possibly due to the equivalent N, P and K nutrients applied. Macro-nutrient uptake between the organic and conventional SMS did not differ for cabbage heads. Corn residue incorporation reduced the average in-crop weed biomass in cabbage crops by 22% in 2010 and by 47% in 2011. Corn residue-induced inhibitions on weed biomass may be exploited as a supplementary tool to mechanical weed control for the organic SMS, potentially reducing the negative impacts of cultivation on soil organic carbon. Residue incorporation and the organic SMS increased the average total soil N by 7 and 4% compared with the treatments without residue and the conventional SMS, respectively, indicating the longer-term fertility gains of these treatments. Exchangeable K, but not Colwell P, in the soil was significantly increased by residue incorporation. The clayey Vertosol conserved higher levels of nutrients than the sandy Chromosol. Yields under organic SMS can match that of conventional SMS. Residue incorporation in soil improved soil nutrients and reduced weed biomass.

Rotational grazing (RG) is a livestock management practice that rotates grazing cattle on a scale of hours to days among small pastures termed paddocks. It may beneficially affect stream channels, relative to other livestock management practices. Such effects and other beneficial effects on hydrology are important to RG's potential to provide a highly multifunctional mode of livestock farming. Previous comparisons of effects of RG and confinement dairy (CD) on adjoining streams have been restricted in scale and scope. We examined 11 stream-channel characteristics on a representative sample of 37 small dairy farms that used either RG or CD production methods. Our objectives were: (1) to compare channel characteristics on RG and CD farms, as these production methods are implemented in practice, in New York, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, USA; and (2) to examine land use on these farms that may affect stream-channel characteristics. To help interpret channel characteristic findings, we examined on-farm land use in riparian areas 50 m in width along both sides of stream reaches and whole-farm land use. In all states, stream-channel characteristics on RG and CD farms did not differ. Whole-farm land use differed significantly between farm types; CD farms allocated more land to annual row crops, whereas RG farms allocated more land to pasture and grassland. However, land cover in 50 m riparian areas was not different between farm types within states; in particular, many RG and CD farms had continuously grazed pastures in riparian areas, typically occupied by juvenile and non-lactating cows, which may have contributed sediment and nutrients to streams. This similarity in riparian management practices may explain the observed similarity of farm types with respect to stream-channel characteristics. To realize the potential benefits of RG on streams, best management practices that affect stream-channel characteristics, such as protection of riparian areas, may improve aggregate effects of RG on stream quality and also enhance other environment, economic and social benefits of RG.

The millions of food insecure people in India are not solely due to inadequate food production, but also because some people are simply too poor to buy food. This study assessed how a large-scale conversion from conventional to organic production would impact on the economics of marginal and small farmers in Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh, and on the total food production in these states. This study also considered a situation where fertilizer subsidies would be discontinued, with farmers having to carry the full cost of fertilizer. Results show that conversion to organic improved the economic situation of farmers although food production was reduced by 3–5% in the organic situation. Thus, the estimated economic values were higher in the organic system (5–40% in fertilizer subsidy scenario and 22–132% in no fertilizer subsidy scenario) than in the conventional system, whereas the total state-level food productions were lowered by 3–5% in the organic compared to the conventional system. Food production was higher when rainfed, and lower in the irrigated situation in the large-scale organic scenario. Although the study addresses short-term perspectives of large-scale conversion to organic farming, more research is needed to understand the long-term impact of organic conversion on food production, nutrient supply, food security and poverty reduction.

Commercial farmers have been using polyethylene plastic mulch since the 1950s. Despite the affordability and effectiveness of polyethylene mulch, the disposal process is financially and environmentally costly. Biodegradable plastic mulches, an ecologically sustainable alternative to polyethylene mulch films, were introduced in the 1980s. Biodegradable plastic mulches can be tilled into the soil or composted at the end of the season, reducing the labor and environmental costs associated with plastic removal and disposal. However, research results are mixed as to the effectiveness, degradability and ease-of-use of biodegradable plastic mulches. In 2008–2012, researchers, funded by a USDA Specialty Crop Research Initiative grant, conducted surveys and focus groups in three different agricultural regions of the USA to better understand the barriers and bridges to the adoption of biodegradable plastic mulches for specialty crop production systems. Data on the experiences and views of specialty crop growers, agricultural extension agents, agricultural input suppliers, mulch manufacturers and other stakeholders showed that the major adoption barriers were insufficient knowledge, high cost and unpredictable breakdown. The major bridges to adoption were reduced waste, environmental benefits and interest in further learning. These findings are discussed with reference to the classic innovation diffusion model, specifically work on the innovation–decision process and the attributes of innovations. The study results can be used to guide the activities of those involved in the design, development and promotion of biodegradable plastic mulches for US specialty crop production systems.

Farmers are innovators and experimenters and not just adopters of introduced technologies. The innovations developed by farmers could complement the highly promoted externally driven technologies in addressing the numerous challenges facing agriculture. The aim of this paper was to identify outstanding innovations developed by smallholder farmers in northern Ghana, and prioritize the high potential ones for further scientific validation or dissemination. Using an innovation contest that rewards farmers' creativity, we identified 29 promising innovations. Additionally, 19 innovations were scouted through a household survey. The innovations are largely extensive modifications of existing practices or combinations of different known practices in unique ways to save costs or to address crop and livestock production constraints. While some of the identified innovations can be recommended or disseminated to other farmers, most of them may require further validation or research. However, validating all of these innovations will be very expensive and time-consuming. We propose the multi-criteria decision-making analysis (MCDM) as a simple method to prioritize farmers' innovations. Using this method, we find that among the most promising innovations are those involving the control of weeds, pests and diseases using plant residues and extracts, and the treatment of livestock diseases using ethnoveterinary medicines. We briefly explain the six most highly ranked innovations. This case study from northern Ghana provides further proof that smallholder farmers develop diverse and spectacular innovations to address the myriad challenges they face, and these need to be recognized and promoted. We also conclude that contest and MCDM are useful methods that can be applied in unearthing and prioritizing farmer innovations, respectively.

Research has demonstrated growing public interest in local food and that this interest is driven by a number of factors including supporting local farmers, reducing the distance food travels, sustaining the environment, and food safety and quality. However, there has been very little research relating factors to actual purchase behavior. This study begins to fill that gap by relating consumer beliefs and values toward local foods with activities that support local foods as well as the actual purchase behavior for 22 fresh produce items. Data were collected through an Ontario-wide, web-based survey that is part of a longitudinal panel regarding food issues. Results from 1879 completed surveys indicated consumers had positive perceptions of local food and felt responsible for buying local, but also experienced barriers when trying to do so. Positive perceptions toward local food and a greater sense of personal responsibility to buy local were positively associated and higher barriers negatively associated with the likelihood of engaging in activities related to supporting local food as well as buying fresh produce items that were produced in Ontario. Implications of these findings are discussed in the context that consumers seem to have an overall orientation or schema to buying local in general, rather than a highly specific schema directed to one or a few particular products.

The numerous benefits associated with localized food production have helped increase its popularity among a diverse cross-section of concerned citizens over the past few decades. Quantitative benefits are often attributed to local food systems, such as improvements to local economies or environmental benefits associated with decreased food transportation distances. Qualitative benefits play an equally vital role in the increasing popularity of local foods. The direct connection between people and agricultural land instills a sense of responsibility among consumers, there is a great deal of pride associated with creating a self-sustaining community, and increasing locally derived nutritional produce in our diet can improve health. This research attempts to analyze the feasibility of supplying the nutritional needs for an 11-county region in Southeastern Minnesota entirely from locally grown foods. The study also evaluates an alternative land-use scenario to illustrate how better utilizing land resources can yield environmental benefits in addition to those already inherent with local food production. Potential foodsheds are mapped to represent the theoretical spatial extent of agricultural resources needed to sustain population within the region. The foodshed model finds optimum locations for growing local food based on production potential and availability of agricultural resources to meet the demands of population centers, while minimizing the total distance to transport local foods to nearby distribution centers. Results show that it is theoretically feasible for Southeastern Minnesota to be entirely sustained on local food production. The average distance a unit of food travels in this theoretical baseline scenario is just under 12 km (7.5 miles). The foodshed model produces a surplus of agricultural supply in the region, thus an alternative land-use scenario was explored that involves removing marginal cropland from cultivation in vulnerable landscapes with high ecological value in an attempt to further increase the environmental benefits of locally grown foods. In comparison with the baseline foodshed model, the alternative land-use foodshed converts 68,000 ha (168,000 acres) of marginal cropland on vulnerable landscapes from annually cultivated land to perennial agriculture. This conversion not only reduces total distance traveled by a unit of food from 11.8 km (7.3 miles) in the baseline scenario to 10.8 km (6.7 miles) in the alternative scenario, but also reduces soil degradation, has positive impacts on surface water quality, and may lead to better wildlife habitat. The multiple benefits demonstrated by this study are encouraging to leaders of the local food movement in Southeastern Minnesota. Results of the study demonstrate that the methodology developed for mapping New York state foodsheds is adaptable to the Midwestern US, and should also be adaptable in other regions of the country.

Among infusions of green teabags and leafy green teas from organic and non-organic production systems we measured and compared the content of phenolic acids, flavonols and total polyphenols by spectrophotometry, the content of tannins by titration and the content of caffeine by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In addition, the antioxidant activity of the infusions was determined by spectrophotometry. The results obtained have shown that organic teas contained significantly more flavonols and tannins. However, the content of phenolic acids was higher in non-organic teas. The teas from organic and non-organic production did not differ in terms of total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity. There were no differences in leaf teas in relation to the teabags in contents of phenolic acids, tannins and total polyphenols. Organic teas had higher content of catechin C than the non-organic ones, but at the same time non-organic teas had more epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCG) in comparison to organic teas. Epigallocatechin (EGC) and epicatechin (EC) were not found to be different between the two groups of tea. Catechin was found to be significantly higher in teabags, while the EGCG was higher in leaf teas. The reason for this may be the oxidation of teabags, which have a greater exposed surface area. There was no appreciable effect of the form of tea on the content of tannins, caffeine, flavonols, phenolic acids, total polyphenols, EGC and EC as well as the antioxidant activity of the tea infusions examined.

In the United States, interest in urban farms and community gardens is flourishing, yet the urban home food garden (UHFG) and its contributions to urban systems have been overlooked and understudied. To begin to address this gap, we are conducting a mixed methods study of African American, Chinese-origin and Mexican-origin households with home gardens in Chicago, IL. Study methods include in-depth interviews, participant observation, ethnobotanical surveys and analysis of the chemical and physical properties of garden soils. As of this writing, findings indicate that home gardening has an array of beneficial effects, contributing to household food budgets and community food systems, the reproduction of cultural identity and urban biodiversity. The majority of informants in the study were internal or international migrants. For these individuals, gardening, culture-specific food plant assemblages and the foodways they support represent a continuation of cultural practices and traditional agroecological knowledge associated with their place of origin. The gardens of some migrant households also harbor urban agrobiodiversity with roots in the Global South. At the same time, gardens may have less salubrious effects on urban systems and populations. A lack of knowledge of safe gardening practices may expose vulnerable populations to environmental hazards such as soil contaminants. Gardeners in this study reported using synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides, sometimes indiscriminately, and the repeated application of synthetic fertilizers and compost may contribute to the nutrient loading of urban stormwater runoff. These effects may be moderated by the relatively low bulk density and high porosity of garden soils due to tillage and the application of organic matter, which can be expected to enhance stormwater infiltration. While the UHFG's potential contributions to urban systems are significant, outreach and research are needed to help gardeners grow food safely and sustainably in ways that contribute to overall ecosystem health.

Farming systems in the Costa Chica region in Mexico face limitations linked to low yields and soil fertility degradation. Several alternative maize-based cropping systems have been proposed to improve current limitations. These field-level options need to be evaluated at farm level in order to assess their feasibility, taking into account input requirements, contributions to self-sufficiency in food and long-term soil fertility, and the availability of labor. In this study, we defined four scenarios to explore consequences of changes in current farming systems for eight typical farms in the region; the first two scenarios comprised redressing current imbalances in crop nutrition and organic matter (OM) supply, respectively, and the last two scenarios explored high fertilizer input and animal husbandry. Farms responded in different ways to the various options depending on available land, current soil quality, current cropping systems and presence of livestock. Improvements in crop nutrition based on mineral fertilizers increased family income but only had substantial effects on soil OM (SOM) balances when fertilizer rates were double the amount currently subsidized. Addition of organic fertilizers resulted in positive effects on SOM balance, but with often strong trade-offs with family income due to costs of acquisition, transport and application. Animals played an important role in increasing SOM balances, but had relatively little effect on improving family income. The results demonstrated that improvements in family income and SOM balance at farm scale were feasible but that without more fundamental system changes trade-offs between short-term yield increases and longer-term soil fertility increases should be expected. The results highlight the need for policies that take into account farm-specific differences in crop and livestock intensification opportunities.

The environmental benefits of cover cropping are widely recognized but there is a general consensus that adoption levels are still quite low among US farmers. A survey was developed and distributed to more than 200 farmers engaged in two sustainable farming organizations in NC and the surrounding region to determine their level of utilization, current practices and perceptions related to cover cropping. The majority of farms surveyed had diverse crop production, production areas <8 ha, and total gross farm incomes <US$50,000. Approximately one-third of the survey population had an organic production component. Eighty-nine percent of participants had a crop rotation plan and 79% of the total survey population utilized cover cropping. More than 25 different cool- and warm-season cover crops were reported. The statements that generated the strongest agreement about cover crop benefits were that cover crops: increase soil organic matter, decrease soil erosion, increase soil moisture, contribute nitrogen to subsequent cash crops, suppress weeds, provide beneficial insect habitat and break hard pans with their roots. Economic costs associated with cover cropping were not viewed as an obstacle to implementation. A factor analysis was conducted to identify underlying themes from a series of positive and negative statements about cover crops. Pre- and post-management challenges were able to explain the most variability (30%) among participant responses. Overall, participants indicated that the incorporation of residues was their greatest challenge and that a lack of equipment, especially for no-till systems, influenced their decisions about cover cropping. Farmers did not always appear to implement practices that would maximize potential benefits from cover crops.

According to the United States Census, California is the most urban state in the nation. Although there are many outstanding examples of urban farms in California, in general, urban agriculture (UA) has been slower to gain momentum here than in some other states with large urban populations. Over the past several years, urban agriculture's popularity in California has begun to escalate, with strong emerging interest in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, San Diego, Los Angeles and other metropolitan communities. One challenge for urban farmers and municipal decision makers engaged with UA in California has been limited availability of relevant information and technical assistance. A new project team at the University of California Cooperative Extension, part of the Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC ANR) is working to develop web-based educational resources that will be grounded in a needs assessment that is currently underway. The needs assessment includes a literature review, an internal survey of UC ANR personnel, and community clientele interviews. This paper will report on preliminary findings and analyses of the needs assessment, particularly how UC ANR personnel are engaged with UA, and what tools they think would best serve urban farmers. We suggest implications for those involved with UA, such as personnel of land-grant universities, local governments and non-profits seeking to address the needs of urban farmers in an environment of constrained resources.

We analyzed the productivity levels of smallholder farms in northern Thailand practicing different ‘clean and safe’ vegetable farming systems or conventional vegetable (CV) production. ‘Clean and safe’ farmers are categorized into three groups based on their use of synthetic chemicals: organic, pesticide-free and safe-use. Farm-level data on vegetable production were collected from random samples of farms operating these farming systems. A standard stochastic production frontier model and a metafrontier model were estimated for each system to obtain estimates of technical efficiency (TE) with respect to their cohorts, metatechnology ratios (MTRs, showing the extent of technology gaps between farming systems) and overall productivity measures. Productivity levels were found to vary moderately between farming systems. ‘Clean and safe’ farms achieved a higher mean TE score than conventional farms, indicating a more efficient use of inputs in producing a certain level of output within their system. However, their MTRs were significantly lower than those of conventional farmers, indicating greater production technology constraints because of the need to conform to strict guidelines. All four farming systems had at least one farmer who could overcome the technological constraints to achieve the highest possible output regardless of the technology used. Effective assistance providers were found to be crucial for farmers to achieve high productivity in the organic farming system. Improvements are needed to raise low productivity levels through technology transfer, value chain improvement and farmer capacity in production and marketing. The required improvement strategies differ among farming systems.

In temperate regions, reduced tillage is still not broadly accepted in organic farming although the guidelines often recommend the reduction of tillage intensity. During the years 5–7 of a long-term experiment, we studied the effects of the three tillage systems moldboard plowing (MP, soil inversion to 30 cm depth), two-layer plowing (TP, inversion to 15 cm, loosening to 30 cm) and layer cultivation (LC, loosening to 30 cm) on soil nutrients, nutrient content of barley, rye and associated weeds, and yield on a clay loam soil. Crops were cultivated within a five-course crop rotation consisting of green fallow, winter wheat, field peas, winter rye and spring barley; no additional fertilizers were applied. Tillage affected only soil nitrate under barley, which decreased with decreasing tillage intensity. Soil humus, phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) were unaffected by tillage under both crops. Barley shoot nitrogen content was significantly influenced by tillage, with, across years, 38 and 83% higher values under MP than under TP or LC, respectively. Weeds in barley had a higher P and K content at LC than at MP or TP. This resulted, across years, in 73% higher barley yields in MP than in LC. The TP showed a 29% higher barley yield than the LC. Tillage methods had no effect on rye nutrient contents, rye yields or on weeds associated with rye. The significant interaction between tillage and year for rye yield suggests that weather conditions in a given year (e.g., amount of rainfall) can considerably alter the effect of reduced tillage.

Overwintered cover crops mechanically terminated into mulch can be a weed management tool for reduced-tillage organic agriculture. However, the impacts of management options for cover cropping are not well understood, including cover crop variety, termination timing and termination method. In a field experiment, conducted in 2012 and 2013 in Western Washington, we examined three grains, four vetches and one barley–vetch mix terminated with two mechanical methods and at two different times. We determined the influence of cover crop variety and termination time on cover crop biomass production and tissue nitrogen (N), effectiveness of cover crop termination, soil nitrate–N and percent weed cover. We also determined the influence of termination method on percent weed cover. Cover crop biomass ranged between 3 and 9 Mg ha−1 and was not influenced by termination time; the greatest production was from three varieties of grain. Rye varieties were more effectively terminated with a roller–crimper than barley. Mean soil nitrate–N levels ranged from 1.9 to 18 mg kg−1 and were the greatest with vetches. Post-termination weed cover was greater in 2013 than in 2012 and the cover crop variety influenced weed cover at the Late termination time only. Neither plant N concentration in the cover crop mulch nor soil nitrate influenced weed cover. The results of this study indicate that cover crop biomass and termination timing are important factors influencing weed cover and termination effectiveness in cover crop mulch.

Organic producers are seeking alternative tactics for weed control, so that they can reduce their need for tillage. In this study, we examined cultural strategies for controlling weeds during the transition from a cool-season crop to soybean. The study was arranged as a two-way factorial, with factors being choice of cool-season crop and tillage treatments. The cool-season crops were either spring wheat harvested for grain or an oat–pea mixture harvested for forage. Five tillage treatments, ranging from intensive tillage to no-till, were established following each cool-season crop. Two tillage treatments included the cover crops, oat plus oilseed radish. Soybean was planted the following growing season. Each soybean plot was split into two subplots: weed-free and weed-infested. A cultural system comprising oat/pea as a preceding crop with no-till and cover crops reduced weed biomass in soybean 63% compared to intensive tillage. Reduced weed biomass resulted because of delayed weed emergence and lower weed community density. Consequently, soybean yielded 14% more in this treatment than with the intensive tillage treatment when weeds were present. Weed community composition also differed between the two systems; horseweed and field dandelion were prominent in no-till, whereas common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed and buffalobur were prevalent in the tillage control. Other treatments did not control weeds better than intensive tillage. A cultural system approach may minimize the need for tillage during the interval between cool-season crops and soybean.

Localization is one process/outcome that is proffered as key to the ‘grand challenges’ that currently face the food system. Consumers are attributed much agency in this potential transformation, being encouraged from all levels of society to exert their consumer muscle by buying local food. However, due to the social construction of scale it cannot be said that ‘local food’ is a definite entity and consumers understand the term ‘local food’ differently depending on their geographic and social context. As such, the research upon which this paper is based aimed to provide a nuanced understanding of how consumers in the particular spatial and social contexts of urban and rural Ireland understood the concept of ‘local food’. A specific objective was to test the theory that these consumers may have fallen into the ‘local trap’ by unquestioningly associating food from a spatially proximate place with positive characteristics. A three-phase mixed methodology was undertaken with a sample of consumers dwelling in urban and rural areas in both Dublin and Galway, Ireland: 1000 householders were surveyed; 6 focus group discussions took place; and 28 semi-structured interviews were carried out. The results presented in this paper indicate that for most participants in this study, spatial proximity is the main parameter against which the ‘localness’ of food is measured. Also, it was found that participants held multiple meanings of local food and there was a degree of fluidity in their understandings of the term. The results from the case study regions highlight how participants’ understandings of local food changed depending on the food in question and its availability. However, the paper also indicates that as consumers move from one place to another, the meaning of local food becomes highly elastic. The meaning is stretched or contracted according to the perceived availability of food, greater or lesser connections to the local producer community and the relative geographic size of participants’ locations. Our analysis of findings from all three phases of this research revealed a difference in understandings of local food among participants resident in urban and rural areas: participants dwelling in rural areas were more likely than those in urban areas to define local food according to narrower spatial limits. The paper concludes with an overview of the practical and theoretical significance of these results in addressing the current dearth of research exploring the meaning of local food for consumers and suggests avenues for future research.

Cocoa-based small-scale agriculture is the most important source of income for most farming families in the region of Alto Beni in the sub-humid foothills of the Andes. Cocoa is grown in cultivation systems of varying ecological complexity. The plantations are highly susceptible to climate change impacts. Local cocoa producers mention heat waves, droughts, floods and plant diseases as the main impacts affecting plants and working conditions, and they associate these impacts with global climate change. From a sustainable regional development point of view, cocoa farms need to become more resilient in order to cope with the climate change related effects that are putting cocoa-based livelihoods at risk. This study assesses agroecosystem resilience under three different cocoa cultivation systems (successional agroforestry, simple agroforestry and common practice monocultures). In a first step, farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts were assessed and eight indicators of agroecological resilience were derived in a transdisciplinary process (focus groups and workshop) based on farmers’ and scientists’ knowledge. These indicators (soil organic matter, depth of Ah horizon, soil bulk density, tree species diversity, crop varieties diversity, ant species diversity, cocoa yields and infestation of cocoa trees with Moniliophthora perniciosa) were then surveyed on 15 cocoa farms and compared for the three different cultivation systems. Parts of the socio-economic aspects of resilience were covered by evaluating the role of cocoa cooperatives and organic certification in transitioning to more resilient cocoa farms (interviews with 15 cocoa farmers combined with five expert interviews). Agroecosystem resilience was higher under the two agroforestry systems than under common practice monoculture, especially under successional agroforestry. Both agroforestry systems achieved higher cocoa yields than common practice monoculture due to agroforestry farmers’ enhanced knowledge regarding cocoa cultivation. Knowledge sharing was promoted by local organizations facilitating organic certification. These organizations were thus found to enhance the social process of farmers’ integration into cooperatives and their reorientation toward organic principles and diversified agroforestry.

Organic wheat and small grains are produced on relatively few acres in the inland Pacific Northwest. The objective of this study was to examine how the nitrogen (N) dynamics of cropping systems (CSs) produced during the transition phase impacted organic wheat yield and protein levels in the first 2 years of certified organic production. Certified organic spring wheat (SW) was produced in 2006 and winter wheat (WW) in 2007 following nine, 3-year transitional cereal, small grain and legume-intensive CSs. SW and WW following perennial alfalfa + oat/pea forage or 3 years of legume green manure tended to be more productive than wheat that followed systems that contained a small grain crop for at least 1 year during the transition. In addition to increasing soil N, well-established stands of forage and green manure provided adequate cover to reduce weed establishment prior to organic production. Effective weed control strategies were as important as increasing soil inorganic N levels for improving organic wheat production. Choice of crop type, cultivar and rotation is important in organic wheat systems and in this study, WW had better stand establishment, competition with weeds and higher overall yield than SW and would be a better-suited class of wheat for organic production in situations where spring weeds are the dominant problem. Regardless of CS or crop type, supplemental soil fertility (primarily N) during the organic production phase will be necessary to maintain high soil N levels and wheat yields in these dryland systems.