To determine the effectiveness of the nutritional supplement developed for the Oportunidades programme on growth, prevalence of anaemia, morbidity and cognitive function of pre-school children.

In a randomised, placebo-controlled longitudinal trial, children were assigned to one of three experimental treatment groups: Oportunidades food supplement (OFS), powdered milk (PM) and placebo (PL). Treatments were administered daily for 6 months. Weight, height and Hb were measured in all participants before and after supplementation. Morbidity was assessed two times per week for 6 months using validated questionnaires. The Bayley Scale of Infant Development Test was administered at baseline and after 6 months.

Three marginal rural communities of the state of Queretaro, Mexico.

A total of 224 children, mean age 22·4 (sd 5·9) months, were recruited. After the 6-month intervention, 186 completed the study.

No differences were found in the adjusted changes of weight, height or anaemia between treatment groups and PL. No differences were found in the number of episodes of gastrointestinal or respiratory disease, nor were there any differences in cognitive performance between treatment and PL groups after 6 months of supplementation.

Daily supplementation of 12–24-month-old children with OFS has no additional benefits in growth, anaemia, morbidity or cognitive performance.

To describe dietary changes in men participating in an obesity intervention as part of the Self-Help, Exercise and Diet using Information Technology (SHED-IT) study.

An assessor-blinded randomized controlled trial comparing Internet (n 34) v. information-only groups (n 31) with 6-month follow-up. Dietary intake assessed by FFQ, reporting usual consumption of seventy-four foods and six alcoholic beverages using a 10-point frequency scale. A single portion size (PSF) factor was calculated based on photographs to indicate usual serving sizes.

The campus community of the University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.

Sixty-five overweight/obese men (43 % students, 42 % non-academic general staff, 15 % academic staff; mean age 35·9 (sd 11·1) years, mean BMI 30·6 (sd 2·8) kg/m2).

The average PSF decreased significantly over time (χ2 = 20·9, df = 5, P < 0·001) with no differences between groups. While both groups reduced mean daily energy intake (GLM χ2 = 34·5, df = 3, P < 0·001), there was a trend towards a greater reduction in the Internet group (GLM χ2 = 3·3, P = 0·07). Both groups reduced percentage of energy from fat (P < 0·05), saturated fat (P < 0·001) and energy-dense/nutrient-poor items (P < 0·05), with no change in dietary fibre or alcohol (P > 0·05).

Although men reported some positive dietary changes during weight loss, they did not increase vegetable intakes nor decrease alcohol consumption, while saturated fat, fibre and Na intakes still exceeded national targets. Future interventions for men should promote specific food-based guidelines to target improvements in their diet-related risk factor profile for chronic diseases.

To describe patterns of food consumption associated with overweight/ obesity (OW/OB) and their links to socio-economic status (SES) and urbanization.

A nationwide cross-sectional survey.

Secondary schools in cities, towns and villages in Botswana, Africa.

A total of 746 adolescent schoolchildren.

OW/OB is associated with greater SES, city residence and a snack-food diet pattern. Students belonging to higher SES compared with those from a lower SES background reported significantly (P < 0·01) more daily servings of snack foods (1·55 v. 0·76) and fewer servings of traditional diet foods (0·99 v. 1·68) and also reported that they ate meals outside the home more often (90 % v. 72 %). Students in cities ate significantly (P < 0·01) more servings of snacks (1·69 v. 1·05 v. 0·51) and fewer servings of traditional foods (0·67 v. 1·52 v. 1·61) compared with those in urban and rural villages. The odds of OW/OB were increased 1·16-fold with a snack-food diet, a result that was diminished when controlled for SES.

These data suggest that nutritional transition occurs at different rates across urbanization and SES levels in Botswana. In cities, increasing the availability of fruit while reducing access to or portion sizes of snack items is important. Emphasis on continued intake of traditional foods may also be helpful as rural areas undergo economic and infrastructural development.

To develop a timeline for evaluating public health nutrition policy interventions.

Concept mapping, a stakeholder-driven approach for developing an evaluation framework to estimate the ‘time to impact’ for policy interventions. The Schools (Health Promotion and Nutrition) (Scotland) Act 2007 was used as the model to develop the evaluation timeline as it had typical characteristics of government policy. Concept mapping requires stakeholders to generate a list of the potential outcomes, sort and rate the outcomes. Multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster data analysis were used to develop an anticipated timeline to impact for the policy.

United Kingdom.

One hundred and eleven stakeholders representing nutrition, public health, medicine, education and catering in a range of sectors: research, policy, local government, National Health Service and schools.

Eighty-five possible outcomes were identified and grouped into thirteen clusters describing higher-level themes (e.g. long-term health, food literacy, economics, behaviour, diet, education). Negative and unintended consequences were anticipated relatively soon after implementation of the policy, whereas positive outcomes (e.g. dietary changes, health benefits) were thought likely to take longer to emerge. Stakeholders responsible for implementing the legislation anticipated that it would take longer to observe changes than those from policy or research.

Developing an anticipated timeline provides a realistic framework upon which to base an outcome evaluation for policy interventions and identifies positive and negative outcomes as well as considering possible unintended consequences. It offers benefit to both policy makers and researchers in mapping the progress expected towards long-term health goals and outcomes.

To estimate the association strength of dietary behaviour and sedentary habits in relation to childhood obesity in Spain.

A matched case–control study was carried out using data collected by sentinel network paediatricians in general practices.

Five Spanish autonomous communities.

Cases were 437 children (2–14 years old) with BMI >95th percentile according to Spanish reference tables. Controls were 751 children (2–14 years old; two paired per case) with BMI <84th percentile. Data were collected in two phases: individual (questionnaires filled in by sentinel paediatricians) and family (self-administered questionnaires filled in a family environment). Crude OR and adjusted OR (ORc and adj OR) for the given variables were calculated using a simple and multiple conditional logistic regression analysis.

The factors with the greatest effect on obesity were family history of obesity: both parents (adj OR = 11·2), mother but not father (adj OR = 9·1), father but not mother (adj OR = 6·1), siblings (adj OR = 2·7); and eating between meals (adj OR = 2·5) and consumption of sweets and soft drinks >2 times/week (adj OR = 2·0). The highest protection effect was found for five meals per day (adj OR = 0·5), the regular consumption of breakfast (adj OR = 0·5) and for eating fruit for dessert (adj OR = 0·6). Factors related to sedentary habits did not appear as noteworthy.

We have determined the association between certain dietary behaviour and family history with childhood obesity in several Spanish regions.

To examine various sociodemographic aspects related to consumption of micronutrient-rich foods like green leafy vegetables (GLV), which will be helpful in modifying dietary habits, a strategy that merits consideration for prevention of anaemia.

Cross-sectional study for collecting data on socio-economic and anthropometric (weight, height) variables, Hb, dietary pattern (FFQ) and peripheral smear examination for classifying nutritional and iron-deficiency anaemia (IDA).

Three villages near Pune city, Maharashtra, India.

Rural women (n 418) of childbearing age (15–35 years).

Mean Hb was 11·07 g/dl. Seventy-seven per cent of the women were anaemic (Hb < 12 g/dl) and 28 % had IDA, indicating that a large proportion of the women had nutritional anaemia. Higher prevalence of IDA was associated with several sociodemographic and maternal parameters, but multiple logistic regression analysis showed significant (P < 0·05) risk of IDA with lower body weight (<40 kg), short maternal height (<145 cm), younger age at marriage (<19 years) and higher parity (≥2). Various socio-cultural reasons associated with low consumption of GLV included non-cultivation of GLV, priority for selling them rather than home consumption, dislike of GLV by husband and children, and lack of awareness about different recipes for GLV.

Our findings highlight that low consumption of GLV, which are treasures of micronutrients including Fe, is associated with genuine social reasons. This indicates a need for developing action programmes to improve nutritional knowledge and awareness leading to enhanced consumption of Fe-rich foods for preventing anaemia in rural India.

To compare the key differences between school lunches and packed lunches as consumed in a nationally representative sample of primary schools, 6–8 months after the nutrient-based standards for school lunch became mandatory.

Data on 6580 pupils’ school lunches and 3422 pupils’ packed lunches were collected between February and April 2009 from pupils attending primary schools in England. Fieldwork was conducted over five consecutive school days. Fieldworkers randomly selected ten pupils taking a school lunch and five pupils bringing a packed lunch each day at each school, and recorded and weighed all food and drink items consumed, as well as any leftovers.

A nationally representative sample of 136 state-maintained primary schools in England.

A total of 10 002 pupils aged 4–12 years.

Mean intakes of protein, fat, saturated fat and vitamin C from both types of lunch met the nutrient-based standards. Pupils taking school lunches on average consumed significantly more protein, NSP, vitamin A, folate and Zn and less fat, saturated fat, non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES), Na, Ca, vitamin C and Fe than pupils taking packed lunches. Energy intakes were low in both groups.

Packed lunches were less likely to accord with food-based or nutrient-based standards than school lunches. Higher levels of Na, NMES, fat and percentage energy from saturated fat emphasise the difficulties associated with optimising nutrient intakes from packed lunches.

To examine diet costs in relation to dietary quality and socio-economic position, and to investigate underlying reasons for differences in diet costs.

Dietary intake was assessed by a 4 d food diary and evaluated using the 2005 Healthy Eating Index (HEI). National consumer food prices collected by Statistics Sweden and from two online stores/supermarkets were used to estimate diet costs.

Sweden.

A nationally representative sample of 2160 children aged 4, 8 or 11 years.

Higher scores on the HEI resulted in higher diet costs and, conversely, higher diet costs were linked to increased total HEI scores. Children who consumed the most healthy and/or expensive diets ate a more energy-dilute and varied diet compared with those who ate the least healthy and/or least expensive diets. They also consumed more fish, ready meals and fruit. Regression analysis also linked increased food costs to these food groups. There was a positive, but weak, relationship between HEI score and diet cost, parental education and parental occupation respectively.

Healthy eating is associated with higher diet cost in Swedish children, in part because of price differences between healthy and less-healthy foods. The cheapest and most unhealthy diets were found among those children whose parents were the least educated and had manual, low-skill occupations. Our results pose several challenges for public health policy makers, as well as for nutrition professionals, when forming dietary strategies and providing advice for macro- and microlevels in society.

To assess critically the scope for public health nutrition taxation within the framework of the global tax reform agenda.

Review of the tax policy literature for global policy priorities relevant to public health nutrition taxation; critical analysis of proposals for public health nutrition taxation judged against the global agenda for tax reform.

The global tax reform agenda shapes decisions of tax policy makers in all countries. By understanding this agenda, public health nutritionists can make feasible taxation proposals and thus improve the development, uptake and implementation of recommendations for nutrition-related taxation.

The priorities of the global tax reform agenda relevant to public health nutrition taxation are streamlining of taxes, adoption of value-added tax (VAT), minimisation of excise taxes (except to correct for externalities) and removal of import taxes in line with trade liberalisation policies. Proposals consistent with the global tax reform agenda have included excise taxes, extension of VAT to currently exempted (unhealthy) foods and tariff reductions for healthy foods.

Proposals for public health nutrition taxation should (i) use existing types and rates of taxes where possible, (ii) use excise taxes that specifically address externalities, (iii) avoid differential VAT on foods and (iv) use import taxes in ways that comply with trade liberalisation priorities.

To investigate the iodine status of schoolchildren in the Principality of Liechtenstein.

A representative, cross-sectional principality-wide screening of iodine level in household salt and urinary iodine concentrations (UIC) in primary-school children. Data were compared with the WHO criteria and with 2009 iodine survey data from Switzerland, a neighbouring country that supplies most of the salt used in Liechtenstein.

Principality of Liechtenstein.

Schoolchildren (n 228) aged 6–12 years from five different primary schools representing 11·4 % of the children at this age.

The median UIC was 96 (range: 10–446) μg/l; 11 %, 56 % and 1 % of children had a UIC <50, <100 and >300 μg/l, respectively. In all, 79 % of households were using adequately iodised salt (≥15 ppm). The median UIC was 20 % lower than that in children at comparable age in Switzerland (120 μg/l; P < 0·05).

According to the WHO criteria, schoolchildren in Liechtenstein are mildly iodine deficient and household iodised salt coverage is inadequate. Public health measures to increase iodine intakes in the Principality should be considered.

The present study directly compared prices of more and less nutritious foods within given categories in US supermarkets.

Foods selected from six supermarkets in Jackson County were categorized using the five criteria of the Nutrition Detectives™ (ND) programme and an item-to-item cost comparison was made using posted prices. The nutritional quality of foods was distinguished using the clues of the ND nutrition education programme for elementary-school children and validated using the Overall Nutritional Quality Index.

Supermarkets in Jackson County, MO, USA.

Not applicable.

The average price of the item for more nutritious foods did not differ significantly from that of less nutritious foods overall ($US 2·89 (sd $US 0·74) v. $US 2·85 (sd $0·68), P = 0·76). More nutritious breads cost more than less nutritious breads ($US 3·36 (sd $ US 0·28) v. $US 2·56 (sd $US 0·80, P = 0·03), whereas more nutritious cereals ($US 2·46 (sd $US 0·69) v. $US 3·50 (sd $US 0·30), P < 0·01) and cookies ($US 2·76 (sd $US 0·50) v. $US 3·40 (sd $US0·28), P < 0·01) cost less.

Our findings indicate that it is possible to choose more nutritious foods within many common categories without spending more money and suggest that making small improvements in dietary choices does not invariably cost more.

To investigate predictors of adolescent obesity in rural South Africa.

Cross-sectional study. Height, weight and waist circumference were measured using standard procedures. Overweight and obesity in adolescents aged 10–17 years were assessed using the International Obesity Taskforce cut-offs, while the WHO adult cut-offs were used for participants aged 18–20 years. Waist-to-height ratio of >0·5 defined central obesity in those at Tanner stages 3–5. Linear and logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate risk factors.

Agincourt sub-district, rural South Africa.

Participants (n 1848) were aged 10–20 years.

Combined overweight and obesity was higher in girls (15 %) than boys (4 %), as was central obesity (15 % and 2 %, respectively). With regard to overweight/obesity, fourfold higher odds were observed for girls and twofold higher odds were observed for participants from households with the highest socio-economic status (SES). The odds for overweight/obesity were 40 % lower if the household head had not completed secondary level education. For central obesity, the odds increased 10 % for each unit increase in age; girls had sevenfold higher odds v. boys; post-pubertal participants had threefold higher odds v. pubertal participants; those with older mothers aged 50+ years had twofold higher odds v. those whose mothers were aged 35–49 years; those in highest SES households had twofold higher odds v. those in lowest SES households.

In rural South Africa, adolescent females are most at risk of obesity which increases with age and appears to be associated with higher SES. To intervene effectively, it is essential to understand how household factors influence food choice, diet and exercise.