Canola meal (CM) is a commonly used protein supplement for ruminants, the proteins of which are extensively degraded in the rumen. Attempts to decrease the rate and extent of ruminal degradation of canola meal proteins have used physical and chemical treatments (Sadeghi and Shawrang, 2006). However, most of these treatments adversely affect the protein digestibility of the final product in the small intestine. Ethanol treatment appears to be superior in that it alters protein degradability without reducing its intestinal digestibility. No information is available concerning effects of ethanol treatment on ruminal crude protein (CP) degradation and type of true proteins of canola meal that leave the rumen undegraded. Therefore, the objectives were to investigate the effects of ethanol treatment at levels of 500, 600 or 700 ml/l on protein degradability and intestinal digestibility of CM, and to monitor the fate of true proteins of treated CM in the rumen.

In situ rumen incubation and post-rumen mobile nylon bag technique, and in vitro enzymatic procedure are currently used for estimating ruminal and post-ruminal disappearance of feed protein (Danesh Mesgaran and Stern, 2005). The objectives of the present study was to determine the ruminal and post-ruminal protein disappearances of various feed protein sources containing different oil concentrations, using in situ rumen incubation and post-rumen mobile nylon bag technique, and an in vitro enzymatic procedure.

Gas production technique is a useful procedure to assess digestible value of the ruminant feeds. The feeding value of the sunflower meal (SFM) depends on the oil extraction process, variety of sunflower and the proportion of the hulls removed during the extraction. Formaldehyde decreases protein degradability and NaOH (Chen et al., 2007) and exogenous enzymes (Eun and Beauchemin, 2007) increase digestibility. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of formaldehyde, sodium hydroxide or exogenous enzymes on the gas production parameters of sunflower meal containing high fat (165 g fat /kg DM) during in vitro fermentation.

The development of alternative in vitro techniques, such as the gas production technique, has lead to the introduction of several mathematical models to describe and interpret the fermentation characteristics of feedstuffs. While there are enough data to validate each gas production model regarding its potential to estimate in situ degradation parameters, few studies have been conducted to compare models. The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between the in situ degradation characteristics of several feedstuffs and the gas production parameters using different mathematical models.

Sources of non protein nitrogen (NPN) are attractive because of their low cost relative to vegetable proteins. Urea is the most commonly used NPN source and is rapidly hydrolysed to ammonia within the rumen. A very rapid release of ammonia may result in reduced utilisation by ruminal bacteria, increased N excretion, negative impacts on fertility and potentially ammonia toxicity (Richardson et al., 2003). This has lead to the development of slow-release urea based products including isobutylidene diurea, acetylurea, biuret and formaldehyde treated urea. Recently a blended fat and urea source (Optigen®) has been shown to reduce the rate of ammonia release in the rumen, but its effects on microbial metabolism are unclear. The objectives of the current study were to evaluate the effects of a slow release urea source (Optigen®) as a partial replacement for soyabean and rapeseed meal on microbial growth and metabolism in vitro.

Type of supplemental carbohydrate provided in conjunction with forage has been suggested to be a factor that might impact the effect on NDF disappearance (Fondevila et al., 2002). Of particular interest in this regard is the relative impact on fibre disappearance of supplementing with sugars versus starch (Arroquy et al., 2005). The aim of the present study was to elucidate the impact of type of supplemental NFC (starch or sucrose) on in vitro NDF disappearance of lucerne, sugar beet pulp or wheat bran.

The association between rumen fermentation and gas production has long been known. The gas measuring technique has been widely used for evaluation of nutritive value of feeds. Gas measurement provides a useful data on digestion kinetics of both soluble and insoluble fractions of feedstuffs (Getachew et al., 1998). In the gas method, kinetics of fermentation can be studied on a single sample and therefore a relatively small amount of ample is required or a larger number of samples can be evaluated at time. When a feedstuff is incubated with buffered rumen fluid in vitro, the carbohydrates are fermented to short chain fatty acids (SCFA), gases (mainly CO2 and CH4) and microbial cells. Gas production is basically the result of fermentation of carbohydrates to acetate, propionate and butyrate (Beuvink and Spoelstra, 1992; Blu¨mmel and Ørskov, 1993). The purpose of this study was to valuate of nutritive value of grape marc (GM), tomato pomace (TP), grape pomace (GP) and raisin waste (RW) using gas production technique.

Wheat is vastly grown worldwide in order to feed a growing population and for use as ruminant feed. In developed countries where the value of wheat has increased, farmers are growing varieties which have a shorter, thicker stem to structurally support the high yielding characteristics. Straw produced from such varieties is highly lignified and is harder to digest by ruminants. Several techniques have been employed in attempt to improve the nutritional value and digestibility of wheat straw for ruminant feeding, but with no success; e.g. due to the impalpability of chemically-treated straw, and the expense (and often high labour input) involved in highly technical physical techniques. It has already been proven that the Pleurotus species of fungi can significantly degrade the lignin content of many lignified substances (Cohen et al, 2002). Pleurotus species can selectively degrade the lignin content of wheat straw, resulting in the cellulose and hemi-cellulose becoming more accessible, thus allowing the rumen micro-organisms to digest the substance successfully. It is also suggested that the addition of Manganese (Mn) can enhance the degradation of lignin (Hador & Kerem, 1995). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of three concentration levels of Manganese in addition to two strains of Pleurotus fungi (ostreatus 027 and eryngii DSM8264) in order to determine the best combination to achieve increased digestibility and lignin degradation of wheat straw.

The dynamic interactions within the rumen are difficult to simulate. In situ technique allow us to study digestion within the rumen and reduce the need for ruminal simulation. The nylon bag technique has been used for many years to provide estimates of both the rate and extent of disappearance of feed constituents (Mehrez and Ørskov, 1977).This technique provides a useful means to estimate rates of disappearance and potential degradability of feedstuffs and feed constituents. The technique has also provided relatively good predictions of forage intake and digestibility (Ørskov, et al., 2000) and has greatly improved the understanding of nitrogen (N) supply to ruminants and their microbes. By-product feeds are produced by the wet milling, brewing, and other food or feed processing industries and have been recognized as potential feed sources for decades. Feeding by-products to dairy cows and other livestock will probably continue to increase in the future. By-product feeds fed to dairy cows and other livestock prevents a waste disposal problem for industry and reduces the amount of concentrate that must be included in the diet to ensure maximum animal performance. The object of this study was to evaluate of nutritive value of grape marc (GM), noodle waste (NW), tomato pomace (TP), apple pomace (AP), grape pomace (GP) and raisin waste (RW) using nylon bag technique.

The key to maximising the nutritional value of lignocellulosic materials is in disrupting the plant cell walls as to allow complete access to nutrients and not creating extra anti-nutritional factors. The disruption conditions of choice will always be a compromise between severe processes that achieve high levels of access, but simultaneously form anti-nutritional factors, and milder but less disruptive. Sugarcane pith is highly lignified by products of the sugar and paper industries. For treatments by steam and pressure alone, harsh conditions are needed (t>180°C). Under these conditions acetyl groups are released from the hemicellulose matrix and suitable levels of cell wall disruption are achieved, also result in formation of furfural by secondary dehydration reactions of hemicellulosic pentoses and soluble phenolic compounds. Both of them inhibit the activity of rumen microbes and cell-free enzymes. Using lower temperatures with an acid can achieve comparable cell wall disruption to steam treatment at high temperatures (Grohmann et al., 1985), and results lower amounts of toxic compounds. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of low temperature steam treatments with sulphuric acid (H2S04) concentrations and reaction times on utilisation of sugarcane pith by rumen microbes.

The supplemental fats can reduce milk fat and protein percentage and increase milk yield, because the addition of fat can interfere with ruminal fermentation result in decreased fibre digestion. By the way, forage particle size, however, is closely related to ruminal lipid metabolism in several ways including increase in the size and consistency of ruminal mat, increase ruminal mean retention time of the particulate and lipid and its availability for microbial attack and to reduce the rate of lipid hydrolysis and biohydrogenation, which could potentially lower and release of antimicrobial fatty acids. Jenkins et al. (1998) reported a tendency for increase production of FCM when tallow was added to diets with shortcut hay, which suggests at least a limited role of hay particle length. In addition several researchers reported that reduction of forage particle size cause increased DMI, milk yield and milk protein but decreased chewing activity, rumination, Intake time, rumen pH, milk fat percentage and fibre digestibility (Teimouri Yansari et al., 2004). Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of alfalfa hay particle size and soybean oil on nutrient digestibility, chewing activity, milk yield and composition of early lactating Iranian Holstein cows.

The aim of the present study was to determine whether the addition of fumaric acid (FA) to the diet would influence nutrient digestibility in growing Kadon pigs. In pigs there is substantial fermentation in the intestinal tract. To monitor whether the feeding of fumaric acid had an effect on microbial activity, were analyzed the concentrations of volatile fatty acids (VFA) in intestinal contents.

Forage maize is mainly composed of starch in the ears and cell walls in the stover. Upon feeding maize to cattle starch can be fermented in the rumen, but after bypassing the rumen it can also be digested in the intestines. There is not much knowledge on the influence of maturation of the maize plants on the amount of rumen fermentable starch and on the kinetics of the rumen degradable part. There is also not much insight in the variation in rumen fermentation properties by different genotypes (cultivars). In many feed evaluation systems the total cell wall degradability of maize is valued and not its rate of degradation in the rumen. To get insight in the changes in cell wall and starch quality 4 different maize cultivars were harvested during the growing season and analysed for chemical composition and rumen fermentation kinetics, determined with the gas production technique.

Hay is a very common forage fed to horses in the UK with Hollands (2001) reporting it as the most common. The affiliation between hay and equine respiratory disease is well documented and McGorum (2001) states that 90% of hay made in the UK is of inadequate quality for consumption by horses. The process of soaking hay prior to feeding is well recognised to reduce the number of spores within the hay (Blackman and Moore-Colyer, 1998; McGorum, 2001). As a consequence soaking hay is common practice in many stable yards. This has many disadvantages including disposal of the post-soak liquor and the reduction in nutrient value of the hay (Blackman and Moore-Colyer, 1998). Steaming hay has been suggested as a potential alternative to soaking. There are currently few studies directly comparing the efficacy of soaking and steaming. This study aims to compare the impact of both soaking and steaming treatments on the levels of respirable particles and nutrients of hay.

The presence of soluble non-starch polysaccharides (SNSP) in non-ruminant diets can have a negative effect on digestibility due to the increase in digesta viscosity they invariably promote. Viscosity measurements studies have relied on supernatant viscosity following the removal of solid particles from the digesta via centrifugation. However, Takahashi and Sakata (2004) observed that the removal of solid particles from caecal contents changes the basic rheological characteristics of digesta from a non-Newtonian fluid to a Newtonian fluid. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of a SNSP source in piglet diets on whole digesta viscosity measurements as determined through a novel protocol developed at Nottingham.

Feed by-products are often economical sources of nutrients for use in ruminant rations. However, there are limitations regarding their usage such as high density, small particle size and in some cases, low digestibility due to high lignin contents (for by-products such as cottonseed hull, peanut hull and sunflower hull). The use of some by-products continues to increase (such as pistachio hull and cotton seed hull) although there is little data regarding their physical or chemical properties. In this study some chemical and physical properties of non-forage fibre by-products were investigated.

During the past 20 years, canola has passed peanut, sunflower and, most recently, cottonseed in worldwide production. At present, some varieties of canola seed are cultivated in Iran particularly Okapi, Opera and SLM046 in east Azerbaijan province. Its components have been altered through genetic selection which markedly reduced its detrimental components. (Leeson and Summers, 2001). There is growing interest within the feed industry to use full-fat oilseeds in poultry diets. There are not enough data of nutrient composition of full-fat canola seed in the country. So the objective of this study was determining of nutrient composition consist of chemical Compounds, mineral content and gross energy in three varieties of canola seed from Iran.

Bacterial adherence to host tissues is regarded as an important initial step for colonisation and infection. Hence, agents that interfere with the ability of pathogens to adhere to host cells are promising antidotes. In anti-adhesion therapy, alternative adhesion matrices are orally supplied to competitively bind enteropathogens, thus preventing colonisation and disease. A miniaturised adhesion test (Becker et al., 2007) was applied to analyse the binding capacity of food and feed ingredients for bacterial cells. Different by-products of plant processing were tested in terms of their binding capacity for bacteria in the framework of the EU-project SAFEWASTES, with the aim of turning organic waste into healthy feed. In addition, mannose-containing plant materials such as konjac and locust bean gum were tested, for the most common binding ability described with bacteria up to now is mannose-directed adhesion.

Sunflower meal is a good source of protein and NDF for ruminants. The amount of hull or fibre in sunflower might affect the ruminal and post-ruminal digestion of this protein source. Available information on the effect of sodium hydroxide on degradation of NDF and lignin of sunflower meal is scarce. It has been proposed that sodium hydroxide may break down hemicellulose, hydrolyze the ester bonds between lignin and hemicellulose, swell cellulose microfibrils (Canale et al., 1992), expose the cellulose to microbial attachment and improve digestibility (Goto et al., 1993). The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on chemical composition and in situ degradation characteristics of NDF and lignin of low and high fat sunflower meal (25 and 165 g/kg DM; LFSM and HFSM, respectively).

In Iran, maize silage is used in dairy cattle farm as a forage source and harvested as a second crop, so has a high moisture (about 800 g/kg). If used as silage, it is susceptible nutrient loss as effluent, and clostridium bacteria growth so that a poor quality silage results. In order to improve the ensiling process, biological additives have been developed. These additives reduce the dependence of the ensiling process on epiphytic lactic acid bacteria (LAB). The function of these inoculants is to ensure a rapid and efficient fermentation of water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) into lactic acid. Most available inoculants consist of selected strains of homo-fermentative LAB, such as Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus and Enterococcus species. Many studies have shown the advantages of LAB inoculants. The purpose of this study was to focus on the effects of Lactobacillus plantarum on the fermentation characteristics and in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of low dry matter (DM) maize silages.