Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites recovered from the host-parasite interface during abscess development obtain different stimuli compared with long-term cultured cells. In order to have a better understanding about the mechanisms in which the 140 kDa fibronectin (FN)-binding molecule (EhFNR) is involved during the invasive process, we decided to compare the regulation process of this molecule among long-term cultured trophozoites, FN-stimulated trophozoites, and trophozoites recently recovered from a liver abscess. A cDNA clone (5A) containing a fragment of the EhFNR that shows identity to the C-terminal region of the intermediate galactose lectin subunit Igl, was selected with a mAb (3C10). Identity of EhFNR with Igl was confirmed by immunoprecipitation with 3C10 and EH3015 (against the Gal/GalNAc intermediate subunit) mAbs. The 3C10 mAb was used as a tool to explore the modulation of the amoebic receptor (EhFNR). Our results showed specific regulation of the EhFNR in FN-interacted amoebas, as well as in trophozoites recovered at different stages of abscess development. This regulation involved mobilization of the receptor molecule from internal vesicles to the plasma membrane. Therefore, we suggest that in the host-parasite interface, the EhFNR (Igl) plays an important role in the adhesion process during abscess development.

Epidemiological factors of tick-borne equine piroplasmoses, caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi, were investigated using logistic regression (GLM) and general additive models (GAM) based on the prevalences determined in 510 domestic horses and in ticks in S.W. Mongolia by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and/or multiplex PCR. Prevalences of T. equi and B. caballi in horses were 66·5% (95% CI: 62·1–70·7) and 19·1% (15·6–22·9), respectively by PCR and 78·8% (74·9–82·3) and 65·7% (61·3–69·9) by IFAT. Of 166 ticks analysed from PCR- and IFAT-negative horses 1 was PCR positive for B. caballi and none for T. equi. GAM demonstrated non-linear increasing proportions of T. equi-PCR and -IFAT positive horses with age suggesting persistent infection. In contrast, the B. caballi-PCR prevalence decreased with age despite a concurrent increase in the proportion of IFAT-positive animals suggesting parasite elimination. The tick (Dermacentor nuttalli) burden of the horses increased with age and decreased with advancing season. Geldings were more likely to be infected with, and seroconvert to, T. equi. Neither herd affiliation, date of sample collection nor abundance of tick infestation had a significant influence on parasite prevalence.

The genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis from dairy cattle and pigs in Denmark was determined in the present study. Faecal samples from 1237 pigs and 1150 cattle originating from 50 sow herds and 50 dairy herds, respectively, were analysed for the presence of the two parasites by immunofluorescence microscopy. A large proportion of the (oo)cyst containing samples were selected for molecular characterization. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rDNA locus and/or the HSP70 gene of 183 pig and 154 cattle isolates of Cryptosporidium revealed the presence of C. suis, pig genotype II, C. parvum (cattle genotype), C. bovis, Cryptosporidium deer-like genotype and a novel C. suis-like genotype. For both cattle and pigs, a host age-related change in distribution of species/genotypes was observed. The zoonotic C. parvum (cattle genotype) was most prevalent in young calves. For Giardia, 82 and 145 isolates from pigs and cattle, respectively, were analysed at the 18S rDNA locus and/or the gdh gene. Giardia isolates belonging to the zoonotic Assemblage A was found in both young and older calves, as well as in weaners and piglets, whereas cows seemed to be infected purely by isolates of the livestock group, Assemblage E.

Since an indirect fluorescence immunoassay (IFA) for the detection of specific antibodies against Babesia divergens in human sera is not commercially available, an in-house prepared B. divergens IFA for the examination of bovine sera was established for serological studies in humans. To determine whether the described IFA is appropriate for such studies, 2 B. divergens antigens (of human or bovine origin) were tested using serum samples obtained from febrile human patients with a history of ‘tick bite’. Sera from other species of animals infected with B. divergens, Babesia EU1, B. microti or B. canis were also included for comparative purposes. All serum samples were also tested using a commercially available IFA for the detection of antibodies against B. microti, and the results compared with those obtained using blood smear and molecular techniques. This study showed that the evaluation and standardization of a B. divergens IFA for testing human sera is critical and that different B. divergens antigens provide different end-point titres of antibodies, leading to false negative or positive results. Serological cross-reactivity between B. divergens and Babesia EU1 needs to be taken into account when interpreting IFA results.

Here we have studied phospholipase A1 (Plase A1) from Trypanosoma cruzi infective stages and it's possible role regarding the interaction with mammalian host cells. Plase A1 was mainly detected as a membrane-bound activity in the infective amastigote and trypomastigote stages, being remarkably higher with respect to the non-infective epimastigotes. It is noteworthy that only the infective stages secreted Plase A1. Moreover, along the differentiation process from epimastigotes into metacyclic trypomastigotes, the secreted enzyme activity increased simultaneously with the appearance of metacyclic forms, as expected. Since this enzyme is predominantly membrane-associated and secreted by the infective stages, Vero cell lipid profile modifications were analysed after interaction with either intact infective parasites or purified T. cruzi Plase A1. Significant changes in Vero cell lipid composition were observed, with the appearance of free fatty acids, diacylglycerol and lysophosphatidylcholine. Concomitantly with the generation of second lipid messengers, host cell protein kinase C activation was demonstrated. These results indicate that T. cruzi Plase A1 could play a critical role in the early events of parasite-host cell interaction that precede invasion.

Gene expression is known to vary significantly during the Leishmania life-cycle. Its monitoring might allow identification of molecular changes associated with the infective stages (metacyclics and amastigotes) and contribute to the understanding of the complex host-parasite relationships. So far, very few studies have been done on Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis, one of the most pathogenic species. Such studies require, first of all, reference molecular markers. In the present work, we applied differential display analysis (DD analysis) in order to identify transcripts that might be (i) candidate markers of metacyclics and intracellular amastigotes of L. (V.) braziliensis or (ii) potential controls, i.e. constitutively expressed. In total, 48 DNA fragments gave reliable sequencing data, 29 of them being potential markers of infective stages and 12 potential controls. Eight sequences could be identified with reported genes. Validation of the results of DD analysis was done for 4 genes (2 differentially expressed and 2 controls) by quantitative real-time PCR. The infective insect stage-specific protein (meta 1) was more expressed in metacyclic-enriched preparations. The oligopeptidase b showed a higher expression in amastigotes. Two genes, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and a serine/threonine protein kinase, were found to be similarly expressed in the different biological samples.

Leishmania produce several types of mucin-like glycoproteins called proteophosphoglycans (PPGs) some of which are secreted while others are found on the surface of promastigotes and amastigotes. These proteins are thought to be important in the transmission, invasion and subsequent intracellular survival of parasites. The structure and function of PPGs are species and stage-specific in the case of L. major and L. mexicana, but no such information has hitherto been available for L. donovani. This study presents, for the first time, an initial characterization (localization) of PPG in sodium stibogluconate (SSG)-resistant and sensitive clinical isolates of L. donovani from Bihar (India) by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry and Western blotting using antibodies to L. major PPG. Confocal microscopy analysis revealed that both promastigotes and amastigotes possess PPG on their cell membrane and flagellar pocket membrane but its expression was variable in different isolates. The quantitative analysis by FACS and Western blotting showed that the expression and intensity of PPG bands was higher in SSG-resistant isolates. This study suggests the possibilities of involvement of PPG in drug-resistant mechanisms and of using PPG abundance as a marker for identifying drug-resistant clinical isolates in Indian kala azar.

Apicomplexan parasites of the genus Eimeria are the major causative agent of avian coccidiosis, leading to high economic losses in the poultry industry. Recent results show that Eimeria tenella harbours an apicoplast organelle, and that a key biosynthetic enzyme, enoyl reductase, is located in this organelle. In related parasites, enoyl reductase is one component of a type II fatty acid synthase (FAS) and has proven to be an attractive target for antimicrobial compounds. We cloned and expressed the mature form of E. tenella enoyl reductase (EtENR) for biochemical and structural studies. Recombinant EtENR exhibits NADH-dependent enoyl reductase activity and is inhibited by triclosan with an IC50 value of 60 nm. The crystal structure of EtENR reveals overall similarity with other ENR enzymes; however, the active site of EtENR is unoccupied, a state rarely observed in other ENR structures. Furthermore, the position of the central beta-sheet appears to block NADH binding and would require significant movement to allow NADH binding, a feature not previously seen in the ENR family. We analysed the E. tenella genomic database for orthologues of well-characterized bacterial and apicomplexan FAS enzymes and identified 6 additional genes, suggesting that E. tenella contains a type II FAS capable of synthesizing saturated, but not unsaturated, fatty acids. Interestingly, we also identified sequences that appear to encode multifunctional type I FAS enzymes, a feature also observed in Toxoplasma gondii, highlighting the similarity between these apicomplexan parasites.

A monoclonal antibody (mAb) 3C2, against an exospore protein of the microsporidium Nosema bombycis (N. bombycis) was prepared, and its effects on microsporidial germination and reproduction in vitro were studied. MAb 3C2 was effective in inhibiting the germination and subsequent infection of Bombyx mori cells compared to the control mAb. The antigen was isolated by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Immunoblotting revealed it to be an 84 kDa protein corresponding to pI (7·2) on the 2-D gel. The present results suggest that the antibodies can be used for diagnostic purposes and for developing new therapeutic strategies in controlling microsporidian diseases.

Here we review molecular information related to resistance to the cholinergic anthelmintics in nematodes. The amount of molecular information available varies between the nematode species, with the best understood so far being C. elegans. More information is becoming available for some other parasitic species. The cholinergic anthelmintics act on nematode nicotinic acetylcholine receptors located on somatic muscle cells. Recent findings demonstrate the presence of multiple types of the nicotinic receptors in several nematodes and the numerous genes required to form these multimeric proteins. Not only are the receptors the product of several genes but they are subject to modulation by several other proteins. Mutations altering these modulatory proteins could alter sensitivity to the cholinergic anthelmitics and thus lead to resistance. We also discuss the possibility that resistance to the cholinergic anthelmintics is not necessarily the result of a single mutation but may well be polygenic in nature. Additionally, the mutations resulting in resistance may vary between different species or between resistant isolates of the same species. A list of candidate genes to examine for SNPs is presented.

There is increasing evidence that pathogens can play a significant role in species decline. This study of a complete free-living species reveals a cost of blood parasitism to an endangered host, the Pink Pigeon Columba mayeri, endemic to Mauritius. We investigated the prevalence and effect of infection of the blood parasite, Leucocytozoon marchouxi, in the free-living Pink Pigeon population. Overall, L. marchouxi infection prevalence detected was 18·3%. Juveniles were more likely to be infected than older birds and there was geographical variation in infection prevalence. Survival of birds infected with L. marchouxi was lower than that of uninfected birds to 90 days post-sampling. This study suggests that while common haematozoa are well tolerated in healthy adults, these parasites may have greater pathogenic potential in susceptible juveniles. The study is unusual given its completeness of species sampling (96%) within a short time-period, the accurate host age data, and its focus on blood parasites in a threatened bird species. Species for which long-term life-history data are available for every individual serve as valuable models for dissecting the contribution of particular pathogens to species decline.

During a routine health check of a wild-caught North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) small piroplasms were noted within erythrocytes. Analyses of the 18S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequences determined that this was a genetically unique organism most closely related to Babesia microti-like parasites found in other small carnivores. Subsequently 39 wild-trapped North American river otters from North Carolina were tested for the presence of piroplasma deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) via polymerase chain reaction and piroplasma DNA was detected in 82% (32/39) of these samples. Sequencing of partial 18S rRNA genes from selected cases determined that they were identical to the sentinel case. This report documents the existence of a genetically unique piroplasma in North American river otters and indicates that the prevalence of piroplasma in North Carolina otters is quite high. The pathogenic potential of this organism for otters or other species remains unknown.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are essential for the regulation of the eukaryotic cell cycle. A number of chemicals, which selectively inhibit the CDK activities, have been synthesized for the development of anti-cancer drugs. This report describes the inhibitory effect of purine derivatives known to be CDK inhibitors on the asexual growth of Babesia bovis. The 4 compounds, roscovitine, purvalanol A, CGP74514A, and CDK2 Inhibitor II, showed significantly suppressive effects on the in vitro growth of B. bovis. Three (roscovitine, purvalanol A, and CDK2 Inhibitor II) showed an inhibitory effect on the early stages of intraerythrocytic development of B. bovis. CGP74514A (CDK1-specific inhibitor) blocked the erythrocyte invasion by merozoites. Our data suggest the chemotherapeutic potential of the CDK inhibitors for babesiosis, and the target molecules of the compounds would participate in the process of successful erythrocyte invasion or intraerythrocytic development of B. bovis.

In the present work we studied the karyotype stability during long-term in vitro maintenance in 3 cloned strains of Leishmania (Viannia) peruviana, Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and a hybrid between both species. Only the L. (V.) peruviana strain showed an unstable karyotype, even after subcloning. Four chromosomes were studied in detail, each of them characterized by homologous chromosomes of different size (heteromorphy). Variations in chromosome patterns during in vitro maintenance were rapid and discrete, involving loss of heteromorphy or appearance of additional chromosome size variants. The resulting pattern was not the same according to experimental conditions (subinoculation rate or incubation temperature), and interestingly, this was associated with differences in growth behaviour of the respective parasites. No change in total ploidy of the cells was observed by flow cytometry. We discuss several mechanisms that might account for this variation of chromosome patterns, but we favour the occurrence of aneuploidy, caused by aberrant chromosome segregation during mitosis. Our results provide insight into the generation of karyotype diversity in natural conditions and highlight the relativity of the clone concept in parasitology.

Parasite-host systems often include an obligatory environmental stage in the parasite life-cycle, which can be transmitted between successive populations. Complexity even increases if immunity only gradually develops upon re-infection. For a better understanding of such systems we study Eimeria spp. in chickens, a protozoan parasite transmitted through oocysts on the floor. This paper deals with dynamics within and between successive cohorts of chickens by coupling a within-host description of the parasite life-cycle (with immunity) to re-uptake of oocysts from the environment. First the initial environmental oocyst level is related to the maximum infection load within a cohort, as a measure of production damage, from which we conclude that minimum damage levels can be observed with intermediate oocyst levels. Then we relate the initial to the final oocyst level of a cohort, and study the dynamics between cohorts in relation to an oocyst cleaning efficiency after each cohort. The resulting unstable dynamics lead to the conclusion that it will often be impossible to minimize damage by repeatedly cleaning with the same effort: it may be necessary to artificially increase oocyst levels in the shed before each chicken cohort.

People living in areas with stable transmission of P. falciparum parasites acquire protective immunity to malaria over a number of years and following multiple disease episodes. Immunity acquired this way is mediated by IgG with specificity for parasite-encoded, clonally variant surface antigens (VSA) on the surface of infected erythrocytes (IEs). However, women in endemic areas become susceptible to P. falciparum infection when they become pregnant, particularly for the first time, regardless of previously acquired protective immunity. This conundrum was resolved when it was observed that the selective placental accumulation of IEs that characterizes pregnancy-associated malaria (PAM) is caused by an immunologically and functionally unique subset of VSA (VSAPAM) that is only expressed by parasites infecting pregnant women, and that protective immunity to PAM is mediated by IgG with specificity for VSAPAM. In this review we summarize the research leading to the identification of the distinctly structured PfEMP1 variant VAR2CSA as the dominant PAM-type VSA and as the clinically most important target of the protective immune response to placental P. falciparum infection.

Terminal sialic acid residues on surface-associated glycoconjugates mediate host cell interactions of many pathogens. Addition of sialic acid-rich fetuin enhanced, and the presence of the sialidiase inhibitor 2-deoxy-2,3-dehydro-N-acetylneuraminic acid reduced, the physical interaction of Neospora caninum tachyzoites and bradyzoites with Vero cell monolayers. Thus, Neospora extracts were subjected to fetuin-agarose affinity chromatography in order to isolate components potentially interacting with sialic acid residues. SDS-PAGE and silver staining of the fetuin binding fraction revealed the presence of a single protein band of ∼65 kDa, subsequently named NcFBP (Neospora caninum fetuin-binding protein), which was localized at the apical tip of the tachyzoites and was continuously released into the surrounding medium in a temperature-independent manner. NcFBP readily interacted with Vero cells and bound to chondroitin sulfate A and C, and anti-NcFBP antibodies interfered in tachyzoite adhesion to host cell monolayers. In additon, analysis of the fetuin binding fraction by gelatin substrate zymography was performed, and demonstrated the presence of two bands of 96 and 140 kDa exhibiting metalloprotease-activity. The metalloprotease activity readily degraded glycosylated proteins such as fetuin and bovine immunoglobulin G heavy chain, whereas non-glycosylated proteins such as bovine serum albumin and immunoglobulin G light chain were not affected. These findings suggest that the fetuin-binding fraction of Neospora caninum tachyzoites contains components that could be potentially involved in host-parasite interactions.

Cryptosporidium parvum is composed of multiple subtypes, which appear to be zoonotic or anthroponotic. Therefore, in order to understand the molecular epidemiology of this species and to control the zoonotic transmission, it is essential to identify the isolates at the subtype level. In the present study, 60·2% of 103 examined dairy calves from 10 farms in the Belgrade area were positive for Cryptosporidium infection by PCR, and all of them were identified as C. parvum by PCR-RFLP of SSUrRNA and COWP genes. Eighteen C. parvum isolates selected randomly from 9 positive farms were classified by molecular phylogenetic analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene sequences into 3 subtype allele families, IIa and IId, which are known to be zoonotic, and a new family IIj. Furthermore 10 isolates in IIa were classified into 3 subtypes IIaA16G1R1b, IIaA18G1R1, IIaA20G1R1, 2 in IId into IIdA18G1b, and 6 in IIj into IIjA16R2 and IIjA17R2. The last 2 subtypes in IIa and 2 subtypes in IIj were new subtypes. These results suggest that C. parvum isolates harboured in calves in the Belgrade area have zoonotic potential and C. parvum is genetically diverse only in a limited area. This is the first molecular epidemiological report about Cryptosporidium infection in Serbia and Montenegro.

Plasmodium malariae, a protozoan parasite that causes malaria in humans, has a global distribution in tropical and subtropical regions and is commonly found in sympatry with other Plasmodium species of humans. Little is known about the genetics or population structure of P. malariae. In the present study, we describe polymorphic genetic markers for P. malariae and present the first molecular epidemiological data for this parasite. Six microsatellite or minisatellite markers were validated using 76 P. malariae samples from a diverse geographical range. The repeat unit length varied from 2 to17 bp, and up to 10 different alleles per locus were detected. Multiple genotypes of P. malariae were detected in 33 of 70 samples from humans with naturally acquired infection. Heterozygosity was calculated to be between 0·236 and 0·811. Allelic diversity was reduced for samples from South America and, at some loci, in samples from Thailand compared with those from Malawi. The number of unique multilocus genotypes defined using the 6 markers was significantly greater in Malawi than in Thailand, even when data from single genotype infections were used. There was a significant reduction in the multiplicity of infection in symptomatic infections compared with asymptomatic ones, suggesting that clinical episodes are usually caused by the expansion of a single genotype.

Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis is a protozoan of the American Continent that causes localized cutaneous leishmaniasis and, rarely, the diffuse cutaneous form of disease in humans. It has become clear in recent years that the course of Leishmania major infection in the mouse model differs when low numbers of purified metacyclic forms are used as inocula in comparison with the traditionally hitherto studied infection models that used large numbers of stationary-phase (SP) promastigotes. The low-number metacyclic inocula are thought to reproduce more closely the natural infection transmitted by the vector. In the present study the course of L. amazonensis infection, its local and distant dissemination patterns, and parasite load were compared in susceptible BALB/c and relatively resistant C57BL/6 mice infected in the footpad with inocula of 107 SP-promastigotes or with 104 purified metacyclic forms. Longer lag-phases were observed for infection with purified metacyclics but the characteristic patterns of disease susceptibility and cytokine production for either mouse strain were similar to those observed for SP-promastigote inocula. An inoculation dose of the order of 104 metacyclics was required to obtain consistent infections; 10- or 100-fold lower doses resulted in variable infection rates. Characteristically, L. amazonensis infection spread to distant organs and persisted there also in the relatively resistant C57BL/6 mice examined after 6 months of infection.